Preface
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ix
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1. Phonetics
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1
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1.1 Articulatory phonetics
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2
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1.1.1 Consonants
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4
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1.1.2 Vowels
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12
|
1.1.3 Suprasegmentals
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16
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1.1.4 Broad and narrow transcription
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16
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1.2 Acoustic phonetics
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17
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1.3 Phonetic alphabets
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26
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1.3.1 The IPA
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27
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1.3.2 Problems with the IPA
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29
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1.3.3 Compromise adopted in this book
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30
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1.4 Exercises
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33
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2. Contrast and Distribution
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37
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2.1 Complementary distribution
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37
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2.2 Coincident distribution
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44
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2.3 Overlapping distribution
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45
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2.4 Pattern congruity
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47
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2.5 Free variation
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50
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2.6 Phonological rules and notations
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53
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2.7 Common types of phonological processes
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55
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2.7.1 Assimilation
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55
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2.7.2 Dissimilation
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55
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2.7.3 Lenition
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56
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2.7.4 Fortition
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57
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2.7.5 Insertions
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57
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2.7.6 Deletions
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57
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2.7.7 Lengthening
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58
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2.7.8 Compensatory lengthening
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59
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2.7.9 Shortening
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59
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2.8 Problems with phonemic analysis
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60
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2.8.1 Neutralization
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60
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2.8.2 Pattern congruity
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63
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2.9 Summary
|
64
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2.10 Exercises
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66
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3. Distinctive features
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79
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3.1 Features as smallest building blocks
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79
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3.2 Binary distinctions
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79
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3.3 Further vowel features
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85
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3.4 Major classes: major class features
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89
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3.5 Features of consonants
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91
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3.5.1 Voicing and aspiration
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92
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3.5.2 Manner of articulation
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93
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3.5.3 Place of articulation
|
95
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3.6 Secondary articulation of consonants
|
99
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3.7 Features for suprasegmentals
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100
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3.8 Redundancy and implications
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100
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3.9 Exercises
|
107
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4. Alternations
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113
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4.1 Alternations as phonology
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113
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4.2 Morphology
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114
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4.3 Russian devoicing
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115
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4.4 More on phonological rules
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119
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4.5 ATR harmony
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121
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4.6 Spanish lenition; Fortition and nasal assimilation in Lumasaaba
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125
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4.7 Steps in phonological analysis
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131
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4.8 Writing up the analysis
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133
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4.9 Further rule writing conventions and abbreviatory devices
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134
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4.9.1 Curly braces
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134
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4.9.2 Parentheses
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135
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4.9.3 Greek letter variables
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137
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4.9.4 Angled bracket notation
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139
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4.9.5 Mirror image rules
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142
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4.9.6 Transformational rules
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142
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4.10 Exercises
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144
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5. Rule order
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153
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5.1 Russian
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153
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5.2 Methodology: discovering rule order
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158
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5.3 Formulation of the ordered rule hypothesis
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159
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5.4 Iterative rules
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161
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5.5 Spanish r-sounds
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167
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5.6 Yawelmani
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173
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5.6.1 Vowel Shortening and Epenthesis
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173
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5.6.2 Vowel Harmony
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176
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5.6.3 Some additional rules
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183
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5.7 Rule ordering relationships
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189
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5.7.1 Feeding order
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190
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5.7.2 Bleeding order
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190
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5.7.3 Counterfeeding order
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192
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5.7.4 Counterbleeding order
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194
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5.7.5 Mutually bleeding order
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194
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5.7.6 Opacity
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195
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5.8 Exercises
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196
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6. Abstractness
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207
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6.1 Phonetic representations
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207
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6.2 The null hypothesis
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207
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6.3 Two levels of representation
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209
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6.4 The simplicity criterion
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212
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6.5 The naturalness condition
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215
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6.6 Degrees of abstractness in underlying representations
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217
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6.6.1 Concrete underlying representations
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217
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6.6.2 Underlying representation as one of the phonetic alternants
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218
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6.6.3 Morphemes with several alternations
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219
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6.6.4 More abstract underlying representations
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222
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6.6.5 Limits on abstractness
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228
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6.7 Corpus-external evidence
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230
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6.7.1 Speech errors
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231
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6.7.2 Second language acquisition
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231
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6.7.3 Writing systems
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232
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6.7.4 Language games
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233
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6.7.5 Poetry
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237
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6.7.6 Language change
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246
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6.7.7 Maori
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252
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6.8 Exercises
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254
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7. Multilinear phonology
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263
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7.1 Autosegmental phonology
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263
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7.1.1 Tone
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263
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7.1.2 Vowel harmony
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268
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7.1.3 Stability
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271
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7.2 Metrical and prosodic phonology
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272
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7.2.1 Metrical syllable structure
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273
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7.2.2 Metrical stress
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278
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7.2.3 Higher metrical units
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282
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7.3 Underspecification
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289
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7.4 Lexical phonology
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297
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7.5 Exercises
|
305
|
References
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309
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Index
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319
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Linguistics