In this paper we discuss the four tones of Standard (Beijing) Mandarin Chinese. First, we will suggest a proposal for their phonological representation. Then, we discuss the order in which they are acquired in first language acquisition, relating this both to the representations we propose and to the relative frequency with which these tones appear in the most frequently used Chinese words. It turns out that the former predicts the order of acquisition more closely than the latter: We provide an explanation for this based on the early stage at which the tones are acquired.
Bao, Zhiming. 1990. On the nature of tone. Cambridge, MA: MIT dissertation.
Cai, Qing & Marc Brysbaert. 2010. SUBTLEX-CH: Chinese word and character frequencies based on film subtitles. Plos ONE 5(6), e10729.
Chao, Yuen-Ren. 1930. A system of tone-letters. Le Maître Phonétique 451. 24–27.
Chen, Matthew Y. 2000. Tone sandhi: Patterns across Chinese dialects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Clements, G. Nick & Elisabeth V. Hume. 1995. The internal organization of speech sounds. In John Goldsmith (ed.), The Handbook of Phonological Theory, 245–306. Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell.
Clements, G. Nick, Alexis Michaud & Cédric Patin. 2011. Do we need tone features? Ms, CNRS/University of Paris.
Duanmu, San. 2000. The phonology of Standard Chinese. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Goldsmith, John A. 1979. Autosegmental phonology. New York: Garland.
Hallé, Pierre. A. 1994. Evidence for tone-specific activity of the sternohyoid muscle in Modern Standard Chinese. Language and Speech 37(2). 103–123.
Haspelmath, Martin, Matthew S. Dryer, David Gil & Bernard Comrie. 2005. The world atlas of language structures. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hyman, Larry M. 2011. The representation of tone. In Marc van Oostendorp, Colin J. Ewen, Elisabeth V. Hume & Keren D. Rice (eds.), The Blackwell Companion to Phonology, vol. 21. London: Wiley-Blackwell.
Jeng, Heng-hsiung. 1979. The acquisition of Chinese phonology in relation to Jakobson’s laws of irreversible solidarity.
Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences
. Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen.
Lee, Wai-Sum & Eric Zee. 2003. Standard Chinese (Beijing). Journal of the International Phonetic Association 33(1). 109–112.
Levelt, Clara C., Niels O. Schiller & Willem J. Levelt. 1999. The acquisition of syllable types. Language Acquisition 8(3). 237–264.
Li, C.N. & Sandra A. Thompson. 1976. The acquisition of tone in Mandarin-speaking children. Journal of Child Language 4(2). 185–199.
Li, C.N. & Sandra A. Thompson. 1989. Mandarin Chinese: A functional reference grammar. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Liang, Jie & Vincent J. van Heuven. 2004. Evidence for separate tonal and segmental tiers in the lexical specification of words: A case study of a brain-damaged Chinese speaker. Brain and Language 91(3). 282–293.
Ohala, John J. & William G. Ewan. 1973. Speed of pitch change. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 53(1). 345.
Saffran, Jenny R. 2001. Words in a sea of sounds: The output of statistical learning. Cognition 811. 149–169.
Sagart, Laurent, Pierre Hallé, Bénédicte de Boysson-Bardies & Catherine Arabia-Guidet. 1986. Tone production in Modern Standard Chinese: An electromyographic investigation. Cahiers de Linguistique — Asie Orientale 15(2). 205–221.
Sagey, Elisabeth C. 1986. The representation of features and relations in non-linear phonology. Cambridge, MA: MIT dissertation.
Sloos, Marjoleine. 2013. Phonological grammar and frequency: An integrated approach. Evidence from German, Indonesian, and Japanese. PhD dissertation, University of Groningen.
Sloos, Marjoleine & Jeroen M. van de Weijer. Submitted. What adult speech can tell us about child language acquisition.
Tardif, Twila. 1996. Nouns are not always learned before verbs: Evidence from Mandarin speakers’ early vocabularies. Developmental Psychology 32(3). 492–504.
van de Weijer, Jeroen M. 2012. Grammar as selection: Combining Optimality Theory and Exemplar Theory. Nagoya: Kougaku Shuppan.
van de Weijer, Jeroen M. & Marjoleine Sloos. 2013. Learning markedness constraints: The case of French. In Suzanne Aalberse & Anita Auer (eds.), Linguistics in the Netherlands 2013, 188–200. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Wang, Jialing. 1997. The representation of the neutral tone in Chinese putonghua. In Jialing Wang & Norval Smith (eds.), Studies in Chinese phonology, 157–183. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Wong, Puisan. 2012. Acoustic characteristics of three-year-olds’ correct and incorrect monosyllabic Mandarin lexical tone productions. Journal of Phonetics 40(1). 141–151.
Xu, Yi. 1997. Contextual tonal variations in Mandarin. Journal of Phonetics 25(1). 61–84.
Yip, Moira. 1980. The tonal phonology of Chinese. Cambridge, MA: MIT dissertation.
Yip, Moira. 2002. Tone. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zhang, Jie. 2001. The effects of duration and sonority on contour tone distribution; Typological survey and formal analysis. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA dissertation.
Zhu, Hua. 2002. Phonological development in specific contexts: Studies of Chinese-speaking children. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Cited by (6)
Cited by six other publications
Lu, Yu-An & Sang-Im Lee-Kim
2021. The effect of linguistic experience on perceived vowel duration: Evidence from Taiwan Mandarin speakers. Journal of Phonetics 86 ► pp. 101049 ff.
Song, Chenqing
2021. What is in the Final Stage of Inter-Language? Tone Errors and Phonological Constraints in Spontaneous Speech in Very Advanced Learners of Mandarin. In The Acquisition of Chinese as a Second Language Pronunciation [Prosody, Phonology and Phonetics, ], ► pp. 21 ff.
Wang, Lei, Carlos Gussenhoven & Jie Liang
2020. How to pronounce a low tone: A lesson from Kaifeng Mandarin. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 50:2 ► pp. 199 ff.
Yang, Yang, Stella Gryllia & Lisa Lai-Shen Cheng
2020. Wh-question or wh-declarative? Prosody makes the difference. Speech Communication 118 ► pp. 21 ff.
Yang, Yang, Stella Gryllia, Leticia Pablos & Lisa Lai-Shen Cheng
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 31 december 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.