Article published In:
ITL - International Journal of Applied LinguisticsVol. 166:1 (2015) ► pp.37–93
Vol. 166:1 (2015) ► pp.37–93
The impact of PPP and TBLT on Vietnamese students’ writing performance and self-regulatory writing strategies
While the available research literature appears to support the implementation of task-based language teaching (TBLT) in Western countries, few studies have been conducted to investigate its impact on classroom practice in Asia, especially in comparison with the presentation-practice-production (PPP) approach which many Asian teachers still favour. The current study explores the differential effects of the PPP approach and a task-based approach on Vietnamese students’ writing performance and self-regulation while writing descriptive and argumentative paragraphs. The study involved 138 students of English Language Studies at a university in Vietnam. Results show that both approaches are effective in enhancing students’ text quality. The students in the PPP condition had significantly higher scores on linguistic accuracy in the immediate posttest than the students in the TBLT condition. Conversely, students in the TBLT groups had significantly higher scores on lexical diversity in the immediate posttest than the students in the PPP condition. With regard to self-regulation, the students in the TBLT condition had significantly higher scores on the immediate posttest than the students in the PPP condition .
Keywords: TBLT, writing, Asia, PPP, self-regulation
References (127)
Be, N., & Crabbe, D. (1999). The design and use of English language textbooks in Vietnamese secondary schools. Paper presented at the Fourth International Conference on Language and Development. <[URL]>
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bernat, E. (2004). Investigating Vietnamese ESL learners’ beliefs about language learning. EA Journal, 21(2), 40–54.
Bock, G. (2000). Difficulties in implementing communicative theory in Vietnam. Teacher’s Edition, 21, 24–28.
Boekaerts, M., & Corno, L. (2005). Self‐regulation in the classroom: A perspective on assessment and intervention. Applied Psychology, 54(2), 199–231. 
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
Brewer, J., & Hunter, A. (1989). Multimethod research: A synthesis of styles. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Bruton, A. (2002). From tasking purposes to purposing tasks. ELT Journal, 56(3), 280–288.
. (2005). Task-based language teaching: For the state secondary FL classroom? Language Learning Journal, 31(1), 55–68.
Burnaby, B., & Sun, Y. (1989). Chinese teachers’ views of Western language teaching: Context informs paradigms. Tesol Quarterly, 23(2), 219–238.
Butler, Y.G. (2011). The implementation of communicative and task-based language teaching in the Asia-Pacific region. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 31(1), 36–57.
Byrne, D. (1976). Teaching oral english. Essex: Longman.
Canh, L. (1999). Language and Vietnamese pedagogical contexts. Paper presented at the Language and Development: Partnership and Interaction (73–79). Proceedings of the fourth international conference on language and development. Hanoi, Vietnam.
. (2008). Teachers’ beliefs about curricular innovation in Vietnam: A preliminary study. In Y.H. Choi & B. Spolsky (Eds.), ELT curriculum innovation and implementation in Asia (pp. 191–216). Seoul, Korea: Asian TEFL.
. (2011). Form - focused instruction: A case study of Vietnamese teachers’ beliefs and practices. Unpublished PhD dissertation. The University of Waikato.
Carless, D. (2009). Revisiting the TBLT versus PPP debate: Voices from Hong Kong. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 19(1), 49–66.
Carlisle, R. (1989). The writing of Anglo and Hispanic elementary school students in bilingual, submersion, and regular programs. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 11(3), 257–280.
Carrell, P.L., & Monroe, L.B. (1993). Learning styles and composition. The Modern Language Journal, 77(2), 148–162.
Chastain, K. (1990). Characteristics of graded and ungraded compositions. The Modern Language Journal, 74(1), 10–14.
Chenoweth, N.A., & Hayes, J.R. (2001). Fluency in writing generating text in L1 and L2. Written Communication, 18(1), 80–98.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education. London: Routledge.
Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. London: Sage.
De La Paz, S., & Graham, S. (1997). Strategy instruction in planning: Effects on the writing performance and behavior of students with learning difficulties. Exceptional Children, 63(2), 167–181.
DeKeyser, R. (1998). Beyond focus on form: Cognitive perspectives on learning and practicing second language grammar. In C. Doughty & J.D. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 42–63). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Denzin, N.K. (1989). Interpretive biography (Vol. 171). London: Sage.
. (2009). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Ducker, N. (2012). Enriching the curriculum with task-based instruction. Polyglossia, 221, 3–11.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
. (2006). The methodology of task-based teaching. Asian EFL Journal, 8(3), 19–45.
. (2009). Task‐based language teaching: Sorting out the misunderstandings. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 19(3), 221–246.
Ellis, R., Tanaka, Y., & Yamazaki, A. (1994). Classroom interaction, comprehension, and the acquisition of L2 word meanings. Language learning, 44(3), 449–491.
Ellis, R., & Shintani, N. (2014). Exploring language pedagogy through second language acquisition research. New York: Routledge.
Estaire, S., & Zanón, J. (1994). Planning classwork: A task based approach. Oxford: Heinemann.
Fathman, A., & Whalley, E. (1990). Teacher response to student writing: Focus on form versus content. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Second language writing: Research insights for the classroom (pp. 178–190). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ferris, D. (2011). Treatment of error in second language student writing. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Fischer, R.A. (1984). Testing written communicative competence in French. The Modern Language Journal, 68(1), 13–20.
Flower, L., & Hayes, J.R. (1980). The dynamics of composing: Making plans and juggling constraints. In L. Gregg & E. Steinberg (Eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 31–50). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Frantzen, D. (1995). The effects of grammar supplementation on written accuracy in an intermediate Spanish content course. The Modern Language Journal, 79(3), 329–344.
Gay, L.R., Mills, G.E., & Airasian, P.W. (2006). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Geiser, S., & Studley, W.R. (2002). UC and the SAT: Predictive validity and differential impact of the SAT I and SAT II at the University of California. Educational Assessment, 8(1), 1–26.
George, D. (2003). SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple study guide and reference, 17.0 Update, 10/e. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Graham, S., & Harris, K.R. (1989). Components analysis of cognitive strategy instruction: Effects on learning disabled students’ compositions and self-efficacy. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(3), 353.
Graham, S., & MacArthur, C. (1988). Improving learning disabled students’ skills at revising essays produced on a word processor self-instructional strategy training. The Journal of Special Education, 22(2), 133–152.
Graham, S., & Harris, K.R. (2000). The role of self-regulation and transcription skills in writing and writing development. Educational Psychologist, 35(1), 3–12.
Grbich, C. (2012). Qualitative data analysis: An introduction. London: Sage.
Grela, B.G. (2002). Lexical verb diversity in children with Down syndrome. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 16(4), 251–263.
Harmer, J. (1991). The practice of English language teaching. Harlow: Longman.
Harris, K.R., Graham, S., & Mason, L.H. (2006). Improving the writing, knowledge, and motivation of struggling young writers: Effects of self-regulated strategy development with and without peer support. American Educational Research Journal, 43(2), 295–340.
Hayes, J.R. (1996). A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writing. In C.M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences, and applications (pp. 1–27): Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Heaps, H.S. (1978). Information retrieval: Computational and theoretical aspects. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Hiep, P.H. (2007). Communicative language teaching: Unity within diversity. ELT Journal, 61(3), 193–201.
Huy Thinh, D. (2006). The role of English in Vietnam’s foreign language policy: A brief history. Paper presented at the 19th Annual EA Education Conference. <[URL]>
Kellogg, R.T. (1987). Effects of topic knowledge on the allocation of processing time and cognitive effort to writing processes. Memory & Cognition, 15(3), 256–266.
Kim, J., & Kim, J. (2005). Teaching Korean university writing class. Asian EFL, 7(2), 69– 90.
Kim, M.S. (2009). A PPP approach & IELTS writing. The English Connection, 341.
Kline, P. (2000). The handbook of psychological testing. London: Routlegde.
Lap, T.Q. (2005). Stimulating learner autonomy in English language education: A curriculum innovation study in a Vietnamese context. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University of Amsterdam.
Laufer, B., & Nation, P. (1995). Vocabulary size and use: Lexical richness in L2 written production. Applied Linguistics, 16(3), 307–322.
Lewis, M. (1995). Implications of a lexical view of language. Language Teacher 191, 37–39.
Lewis, M. & McCook, F. (2002). Cultures of teaching: Voices from Vietnam. ELT Journal, 56(2), 146–153.
Li, Y. (1998). “It’s always more difficult than you plan and imagine”: Teachers’ perceived difficulties in introducing the communicative approach in South Korea. TESOL Quarterly, 32(4), 677–703.
. (2000). Linguistic characteristics of ESL writing in task-based e-mail activities. System, 28(2), 229–245.
Liao, X. (2004). The need for communicative language teaching in China. ELT Journal, 58(3), 270–273.
Light, R.J. (2001). Making the most of college: Students speak their minds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Loc, N. (2005). Tertiary education and strategies for teaching and learning foreign languages in Vietnam. Paper presented at the Conference on Teaching Tertiary English and International Relations in Vietnam Universities and Colleges, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, Dai hoc Su Pham.
Loi, N.V. (2011). Dynamic conceptions of input, output and interaction: Vietnamese EFL lecturers learning second language acquisition theory. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University of Waikato, New Zealand.
Long, M. (2014). Second language acquisition and task-based language teaching. Sussex: Wiley Blackwell.
Lu, X. (2012). The relationship of lexical richness to the quality of esl learners’ oral narratives. The Modern Language Journal, 96(2), 190–208.
MacWhinney, B. (2000). The CHILDES project: Tools for analyzing talk, Volume II: The database. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Malvern, D., & Richards, B. (2002). Investigating accommodation in language proficiency interviews using a new measure of lexical diversity. Language Testing, 19(1), 85–104.
Malvern, D., Richards, B.J., Chipere, N., & Duran, P. (2004). Lexical diversity and language development: Quantification and assessment. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
Many, J.E., Fyfe, R., Lewis, G., & Mitchell, E. (1996). Traversing the topical landscape: Exploring students’ self‐directed reading‐writing‐research processes. Reading Research Quarterly, 31(1), 12–35.
McCarthy, P.M., & Jarvis, S. (2010). MTLD, vocd-D, and HD-D: A validation study of sophisticated approaches to lexical diversity assessment. Behavior Research Methods, 42(2), 381–392.
McNamara, D.S., Crossley, S.A., & McCarthy, P.M. (2010). Linguistic features of writing quality. Written Communication, 27(1), 57–86.
Miles, M.B., & Huberman, A.M. (1984). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook of new methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Montalvo, F.T., & Torres, M.C.G. (2004). Self-regulated learning: Current and future directions. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 2(1), 1–34.
Murphy, K., & Myors, B. (2004). Statistical power analysis (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Neuman, S.B., & Roskos, K. (1997). Literacy knowledge in practice: Contexts of participation for young writers and readers. Reading Research Quarterly, 32(1), 10–32.
Nishino, T., & Watanabe, M. (2008). Communication-oriented policies versus classroom realities in Japan. Tesol Quarterly, 42(1), 133–138.
Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
. (2006). Task-based language teaching in the Asia context: Defining ‘task’. Asian EFL Journal, 8(3), 12–18.
Ogilvie, G., & Dunn, W. (2010). Taking teacher education to task: Exploring the role of teacher education in promoting the utilization of task-based language teaching. Language Teaching Research, 14(2), 161–181.
Page-Voth, V., & Graham, S. (1999). Effects of goal setting and strategy use on the writing performance and self-efficacy of students with writing and learning problems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(2), 230.
Paris, S.G., & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educational psychologist, 36(2), 89–101.
Patrick, H., & Middleton, M.J. (2002). Turning the kaleidoscope: What we see when self-regulated learning is viewed with a qualitative lens. Educational Psychologist, 37(1), 27–39.
Perry, N.E. (1998). Young children’s self-regulated learning and contexts that support it. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(4), 715.
. (2002). Introduction: Using qualitative methods to enrich understandings of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 37(1), 1–3.
Perry, N.E., Hutchinson, L., & Thauberger, C. (2007). Mentoring student teachers to design and implement literacy tasks that support self-regulated reading and writing. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 23(1), 27–50.
Perry, N.E., Phillips, L., & Dowler, J. (2004). Examining features of tasks and their potential to promote self-regulated learning. The Teachers College Record, 106(9), 1854–1878.
Pintrich, P.R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P.R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Polio, C. (1997). Measures of linguistic accuracy in second language writing research. Language learning, 47(1), 101–143.
Polio, C., & Fleck, C. (1998). “If I only had more time:” ESL learners’ changes in linguistic accuracy on essay revisions. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7(1), 43–68.
Prabhu, N.S. (1987). Second language pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ransdell, S., & Levy, C.M. (1996). Working memory constraints on writing quality and fluency. In C.M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The sciene of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences and applications (pp. 93–106). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ransdell, S., & Wengelin, Å. (2003). Socioeconomic and sociolinguistic predictors of children’s L2 and L1 writing quality. Arob@ se, 1(2), 22–29.
Richards, J.C. (2005). Communicative language teaching today. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.
Samuda, V., & Bygate, M. (2008). Tasks in second language learning. Houndmills, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Sato, R. (2010). Reconsidering the effectiveness and suitability of PPP and TBLT in the Japanese EFL classroom. JALT journal, 32(2), 189–200.
Schunk, D.H., & Zimmerman, B.J. (1997). Developing self-efficacious readers and writers: The role of social and self-regulatory processes. In J.T. Guthrie & A. Wigfielld (Eds.), Reading engagement: Motivating readers through integrated instruction (pp. 34–50). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Sheen, R. (2003). Focus on form–a myth in the making? ELT Journal, 57(3), 225–233.
Sholihah, U. (2013). Task-based language teaching (TBLT) can improve students’ writing ability. Magistra, 25(86), 70.
Skehan, P. (1996). A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction. Applied linguistics, 17(1), 38–62.
. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
. (2003). Task-based instruction. Language Teaching, 36(1), 1–14.
Sowden, S., & Keeves, J.P. (1988). Analysis of evidence in humanistic studies. In J.P. Keeves (Ed.), Educational research, methodology and measurement: An international handbook (pp. 513–526). Oxford: Pergarmon Press.
Swan, M. (2005). Legislation by hypothesis: The case of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics, 26(3), 376–401.
Takimoto, M. (2009). The effects of input-based tasks on the development of learners’ pragmatic proficiency. Applied Linguistics, 30(1), 1–25.
Tesch, R. (1990). Qualitative research: Analysis types and software tools. New York, NY: Falmer Press.
Thornbury, S., & Harmer, J. (1999). How to teach grammar. Harlow: Longman.
Tomlinson, B., & Dat, B. (2004). The contributions of Vietnamese learners of English to ELT methodology. Language Teaching Research, 8(2), 199–222.
Tran, L. (2001). Using pair work and group work in teaching writing. Teacher’s Edition, 51, 22–28.
. (2007). Learners’ motivation and identity in the Vietnamese EFL writing classroom. English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 6(1), 151–163.
Van den Branden, K., Bygate, M., & Norris, J.M. (2009). Task-based language teaching: A reader. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Verheyden, L., Van den Branden, K., Rijlaarsdam, G., Van den Bergh, H., & De Maeyer, S. (2010). Written narrations by 8‐to 10‐year‐old Turkish pupils in Flemish primary education: A follow‐up of seven text features. Journal of Research in Reading, 33(1), 20–38.
Warden, C.A., & Lin, H.J. (2000). Existence of integrative motivation in an Asian EFL setting. Foreign Language Annals, 33(5), 535–545.
Willis, D., & Willis, J. (2008). Doing task-based teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
. (2011). Task-based learning and learner motivation. On Task, 1(1), 7.
Willis, J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. Harlow: Longman.
Willis, J., & Willis, D. (1996). Challenge and change in language teaching. Oxford: Macmillan Heinemann.
Wilson, V. (1997). Focus groups: A useful qualitative method for educational research? British Educational Research Journal, 23(2), 209–224.
Winne, P., & Perry, N.E. (2000). Measuring self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts (Ed.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 531–566). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Yu, G. (2010). Lexical diversity in writing and speaking task performances. Applied Linguistics, 31(2), 236–259.
Zimmerman, B.J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 166–183.
Zimmerman, B.J., & Kitsantas, A. (1999). Acquiring writing revision skill: Shifting from process to outcome self-regulatory goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 911, 1–10.
Zimmerman, B.J., & Risemberg, R. (1997). Research for the Future. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 221, 73–101.
Cited by (14)
Cited by 14 other publications
Harris, Justin & Paul Leeming
2024. Speaking proficiency development in EFL classrooms: measuring the differential effect of TBLT and PPP teaching approaches. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 62:2 ► pp. 509 ff. 
Lu, Jinmiao, Qing Ma & Shaofeng Li
2024. Effect of localized task‐based language teaching on Chinese secondary school English learners’ oral production in examination‐oriented contexts. International Journal of Applied Linguistics
Wei, Ran & Xiaoyan Zhao
2024. Effects of task-based language teaching on functional adequacy in L2 writing. Assessing Writing 60 ► pp. 100838 ff.
Abbott, Marilyn L. & Kent K. Lee
2023. Relationships between students’ emotions, self-regulated learning, and literacy gains in beginning/basic level ESL literacy classes for adults. System 115 ► pp. 103061 ff.
Boers, Frank & Farahnaz Faez
2023. Meta-analysis to estimate the relative effectiveness of TBLT programs: Are we there yet?. Language Teaching Research
Huynh , Truong Sang & Van Loi Nguyen
2023. Review of the effects of Task-based Language Teaching on EFL learners’ speaking performance: What remains to be researched?. CTU Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development 15:3 ► pp. 23 ff.
Kim, YouJin, Sanghee Kang, Meredith D’Arienzo & Naoko Taguchi
2023. Comparing traditional and task-based approaches to teaching pragmatics: Task design processes and learning outcomes. Language Teaching Research
Mohammad Javad Ahmadian & Michael H. Long
2021. The Cambridge Handbook of Task-Based Language Teaching,
Boers, Frank, Lara Bryfonski, Farahnaz Faez & Todd McKay
2021. A CALL FOR CAUTIOUS INTERPRETATION OF META-ANALYTIC REVIEWS. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:1 ► pp. 2 ff.
Nguyen, Thi Anh & Koen Jaspaert†
2021. Implementing Task-basedlanguage teaching in an Asian context. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 172:1 ► pp. 121 ff.
Pham, Vu Phi Ho, Chien Thi Hong & Ngoc Hoang Vy Nguyen
2021. The Effects of Task-Based Instruction on High School Students' Writing Outcomes. International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and Learning 11:4 ► pp. 54 ff.
Serafini, Ellen J.
2021. Adapting and Advancing Task-Based Needs Analysis Methodology across Diverse Language Learning Contexts. In The Cambridge Handbook of Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 73 ff.
Bryfonski, Lara & Todd H. McKay
2019. TBLT implementation and evaluation: A meta-analysis. Language Teaching Research 23:5 ► pp. 603 ff.
Samuda, Virginia, Martin Bygate & Kris Van den Branden
2018. Introduction. In TBLT as a Researched Pedagogy [Task-Based Language Teaching, 12], ► pp. 1 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 8 january 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.