Article published In:
Language, Interaction and AcquisitionVol. 6:2 (2015) ► pp.270–293
Orthographic bias in L3 lexical knowledge
Learner-related and lexical factors
In this paper, we examine some of the factors that might influence the accessing of meanings of written and spoken L3 words. We tested learners of L3 French who had Finnish as their L1 and were highly competent in L2 English. They were presented with L3 French words in written and spoken form, and were asked to give a possible translation for the target word in L1 and to rate their level of confidence in the meaning given. Because of their instructional learning background, we expected orthographic forms to be more familiar than phonological ones. This hypothesis was confirmed. The meanings of the L3 words presented were accessed more easily and more accurately in the orthographic than in the phonological modality, although this asymmetry decreased with a higher level of proficiency. The confidence ratings were negatively affected by a similarity to L2 words. General implications for L3 lexical knowledge are discussed.
References (41)
Andrews, S. (1989). Frequency and neighborhood size effects on lexical access: Activation or search? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 151, 802–814. 
Baayen, R.H., Davidson, D.J. & Bates, D.M. (2008). Mixed-effects modelling with crossed random effects for subjects and items. Journal of Memory and Language 591, 390–412.
Baddeley, A.D., Papagno, C. & Vallar, G. (1988). When long-term learning depends on short-term storage. Journal of Memory and Language 271, 586–595.
Chenu, F. & Jisa, H. (2009). Reviewing some similarities and differences in L1 and L2 lexical development. Acquisition et interaction en langue étrangère 91, 17–38.
Christensen, R.H.B. & Brockhoff, P.B. (2013). Analysis of sensory ratings data with cumulative link models. Journal de la Societe Francaise de Statistique & Revue de Statistique Appliquée 1541, 58–79.
Coleman, J. (1996). Studying languages: A survey of British and European students: The proficiency, background, attitudes and motivations of students of foreign languages in the United Kingdom and Europe. London: Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research.
Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
de Bot, K. & Jaensch, C. (2015). What is special about L3 processing? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 181, 130–144.
de Groot, A.M.B. (1992). Determinants of word translation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 181, 1001–1018.
de Groot, A.M.B., Delmaar, P. & Lupker, S.J. (2000). The processing of interlexical homographs in translation recognition and lexical decision: Support for nonselective access to bilingual memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 53A1, 397–428.
de Groot, A.M.B. & Hoeks, J.C.J. (1995). The development of bilingual memory: Evidence from word translation by trilinguals. Language Learning 451, 683–724.
Grainger, J., Diependaele, K., Spinelli, E., Ferrand, L. & Farioli, F. (2003). Masked repetition and phonological priming within and across modalities. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 291, 1256–1269.
Hammarberg, B. (2001). Roles of L1 and L2 in L3 production and acquisition. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen & U. Jessner (eds.), Cross-linguistic influence in third language acquisition: Psycholinguistic perspectives (21–41). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Hufeisen, B. & Marx, N. (2007). How can DaFnE and EuroComGerm contribute to the concept of receptive multilingualism? Theoretical and practical considerations. In J.D. ten Thije & L. Zeevaert (eds.), Receptive multilingualism, linguistic analyses, language policies and didactic concepts, Hamburg studies on multilingualism 6, (307–321). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Huhta, A., Luoma, S., Oscarson, M., Sajavaara, K., Takala, S. & Teasdale, A. (2002). DIALANG: A diagnostic language assessment system for learners. In J.C. Alderson (ed.), Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Case studies (130–145). Strasbourg: Council of Europe. [URL]
Kroll, J.F., Gullifer, J.W. & Rossi, E. (2013). The multilingual lexicon: The cognitive and neural basis of lexical comprehension and production in two or more languages. In C. Polio (ed.), Annual review of applied linguistics (102–127). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
Lagrou, E., Hartsuiker, R. & Duyck, W. (2011). Knowledge of a second language influences auditory word recognition in the native language. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 371, 952–965.
. (2013). The influence of sentence context and accented speech on lexical access in second-language auditory word recognition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 161, 508–517.
Lemhöfer, K. & Dijkstra, T. (2004). Recognizing cognates and interlingual homographs: Effects of code similarity in language specific and generalized lexical decision. Memory & Cognition 321, 533–550.
Lindgren, E. & Muñoz, C. (2013). The influence of exposure, parents, and linguistic distance on young European learners’ foreign language comprehension. International Journal of Multilingualism 101, 105–129.
Lindqvist, C. (2009). The use of the L1 and the L2 in French L3. Examining cross-linguistic lexemes in multilingual learners’ oral production. International Journal of Multilingualism 61, 281–297.
Llama, R., Cardoso, W. & Collins, L. (2010). The influence of language distance and language status on the acquisition of L3 phonology. International Journal of Multilingualism 71, 39–57.
Luce, P.A. & Pisoni, D.B. (1998). Recognizing spoken words: The neighborhood activation model. Ear & Hearing 191, 1–36.
Milton, J. & Meara, P. (1995). How periods abroad affect vocabulary growth in a foreign language. ITL Review of Applied Linguistics 107(8), 17–34.
Murray, W.S. & Forster, K.I. (2004). Serial mechanisms in lexical access: The rank hypothesis. Psychological Review 1111, 721–756.
Mutta, M. (2014). Cross-linguistic influence in an oral translation task by L3 French learners. Language, Interaction and Acquisition (LIA) 51, 279–313.
Nation, I.S.P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nelson, J., Balass, M. & Perfetti, C.A. (2005). Differences between written and spoken input in learning new words. Written Language & Literacy 81, 25–44.
New, B., Pallier, C., Ferrand, L. & Matos, R. (2001). Une base de données lexicales du français contemporain sur internet: LEXIQUE. L’Année Psychologique 1011, 447–462. [URL]
Quené, H. & Van den Bergh, H. (2008). Examples of mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects and with binomial data. Journal of Memory and Language 591, 413–425.
Rast, R. (2010). The use of prior linguistic knowledge in the early stages of L3 acquisition. IRAL: International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 481, 159–183.
Robinson, P. & Ellis, N. (2008). Conclusion: Cognitive linguistics, second language acquisition and L2 instruction – issues for research. In P. Robinson & N. Ellis (eds.), Handbook of cognitive linguistics and second language acquisition (489–545). New York/London: Routledge.
Schwartz, A., Kroll, J. & Diaz, M. (2007). Reading words in Spanish and English: Mapping orthography to phonology in two languages. Language and Cognitive Processes 221, 106–129.
Serrano, R., Llanes, À. & Tragant, E. (2011). Analyzing the effect of context of second language learning: Domestic intensive and semi-intensive courses vs. Study abroad in europe. System 391, 133–143.
Simon, E., Escudero, P. & Broersma, M. (2010). Learning minimally different words in a third language: L2 proficiency as a crucial predictor of accuracy in an L3 words learning task. In K. Dziubalska-Kołaczyk, M. Wrembel & M. Kul (eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on the Acquisition of Second Language Speech, New Sounds 201, Poznań, Poland, 1-3 May 2010 (439–444). Poznan: Adam Mickiewicz University.
Szubko-Sitarek, V. (2011). Cognate facilitation effects in trilingual word recognition. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 11, 189–208.
TLFi. Le trésor de la langue francaise informatisé [online], ATILF [retrieved on 15.6.2013]. Available at: [URL].
Veivo, O. & Järvikivi, J. (2013). Proficiency modulates early orthographic and phonological processing in L2 spoken word recognition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 161, 864–883.
Williams, S. & Hammarberg, B. (1998). Language switches in L3 production: Implications for a polyglot speaking model. Applied Linguistics 191, 295–333.
Ziegler, J.C., Muneaux, M. & Grainger, J. (2003). Neighborhood effects in auditory word recognition: Phonological competition and orthographic facilitation. Journal of Memory & Language 481, 779–793.
Ziegler, J.C., Petrova, A. & Ferrand, L. (2008). Feedback consistency effects in visual and auditory word recognition: Where do we stand after more than a decade? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 341, 643–661.
Cited by (5)
Cited by five other publications
Shepperd, Louise
2024. Cross-Scriptal Orthographic Influence on Second Language Phonology. Languages 9:6 ► pp. 210 ff. 
Cornut, Camille
2023. Reconnaissance des mots en langue seconde chez les bilingues tardifs : la modalité a-t-elle une importance ? Étude de l’effet de modalité en anglais langue seconde chez des lecteurs typiques et dyslexiques. Bulletin de psychologie Numéro 579:1 ► pp. 71 ff.
Cornut, Camille, Gwendoline Mahé & Séverine Casalis
2022. L2 word recognition in French–English late bilinguals: Does modality matter?. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 25:1 ► pp. 121 ff.
VEIVO, OUTI, VINCENT PORRETTA, JUKKA HYÖNÄ & JUHANI JÄRVIKIVI
2018. Spoken second language words activate native language orthographic information in late second language learners. Applied Psycholinguistics 39:5 ► pp. 1011 ff.
Veivo, Outi, Juhani Järvikivi, Vincent Porretta & Jukka Hyönä
2016. Orthographic Activation in L2 Spoken Word Recognition Depends on Proficiency: Evidence from Eye-Tracking. Frontiers in Psychology 7
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 19 december 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.