L2 Task performance is typically measured along the dimensions of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF, or CALF when lexis is seen as an independent area). This chapter explores the relationships among CALF when topic familiarity and proficiency levels are thrown into the mix. It examined the correlational patterns of CALF in two parallel task-readiness conditions (familiar vs. unfamiliar tasks) at two different proficiency levels (intermediate vs. high). The results, in general, showed that some trade-offs occur, but only with lower to intermediate learners. This pattern attenuates at the more advanced levels, suggesting that limited attention capacity can be compensated for, and better parallel processing abilities can be achieved, as L2 proficiency grows. The findings also indicate that, while most fluency measures and accuracy measures cluster into their respective categories, the subordination-based complexity measure, the clause length-based measure, and different lexical measures appear to be distinct indices of complexity, which sometimes compete for attentional resources. This study sheds light on the nature of task performance at more advanced proficiency levels; it also unveils how complexity results vary when the construct is measured as different syntactic or lexical indexes.
Article outline
Introduction
Literature review
Methodology
Participants
Tasks
Study design
Dependent variables
Results
Relations between CAF measures
Relationships between complexity and accuracy at different proficiency levels
Relationships between lexical measures
Relationships between individual CAF and lexical measures
Discussion
RQ1. What are the general relationships among CALF measures by college L2 learners under different task-readiness (familiar and unfamiliar) conditions?
RQ2. Will these CALF relationships be mediated by proficiency levels under each task-readiness condition?
RQ3. Will performance in linguistic complexity vary if it is measured differently (i.e., as different syntactic or lexical complexity measures)?
Baker-Smemoe, W., Dewey, D. P., Bown, J., & Martinsen, R. A. (2014). Does measuring L2 utterance fluency equal measuring overall L2 proficiency? Evidence from five languages. Foreign Language Annals, 47(4), 707–728.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1992). A second look at T-unit analysis: Reconsidering the sentence. TESOL Quarterly, 26, 390–3955.
Brown, R. (1973). A first language: The early stages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bui, H. Y. G. (2014). Task readiness: Theoretical framework and empirical evidence from topic familiarity, strategic planning, and proficiency levels. In P. Skehan (Ed.), Processing perspectives on task performance (pp.63–93). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Bui, G. (2018). A lexical approach to teaching formality in freshman L2 academic writing. In L. T. Wong & W. L. Wong (Eds.), Teaching and learning English for academic purposes: Current research and practices (pp.111–124). New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
Bui, G. ( 2019 online). Influence of learners’ prior knowledge, L2 proficiency and pre-task planning time on L2 lexical complexity. IRAL-International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching.
Bui, G., & Huang, Z. (2018). L2 fluency as influenced by content familiarity and planning: Performance, methodology and pedagogy. Language Teaching Research, 22(1), 94–114.
Bui, G., & Skehan, P. (2018). Complexity, fluency and accuracy. In J. Liontas (Ed.), TESOL encyclopedia of English language teaching (pp.1–7). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Bui, G., Skehan, P., & Wang, Z. (2018). Task condition effects on advanced level foreign language performance. In P. A. Malovrh & A. Benati (Eds.), The handbook of advanced proficiency in second language acquisition (pp.219–237). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Bui, G, & Teng, F. (2018). Exploring learners’ behavioral patterns in two task-readiness conditions: A qualitative study. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 42(2), 129–149.
Bygate, M. (2001). Effects of task repetition on the structure and control of oral language. In M. Bygate, P. Skehan, & M. Swain (Eds.), Researching pedagogical tasks: Second language learning, teaching and testing (pp. 23–48). Harlow: Pearson Education.
De Jong, N., Steinel, M. P., Florijn, A., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2012). Linguistic skills and speaking fluency in a second language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 34(5), 893–916.
Ellis, R. (1987). Interlanguage variability in narrative discourse: Style shifting in the use of the past tense. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9, 1–20.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R., & Barkhuizen, G. (2005). Analysing learner language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Foster, P., & Skehan, P. (1996). The influence of planning and task type on second language performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18(3), 299–323.
Foster, P., & Wigglesworth, G. (2016). Capturing accuracy in second language performance: The case for a weighted clause ratio. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 36, 98–116.
Halliday, M. A. K., & Martin, J. R. (1993). Writing science: Literacy and discursive power. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
HKEAA. (2004). Benchmarking studies on international examinations. Retrieved from < [URL]>
Kormos, J. (2006). Speech production and second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lambert, C., Kormos, J., & Minn, D. (2017). Task repetition and second language speech processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 39(1), 167–196.
Lennon, P. (1990). Investigating fluency in EFL: A quantitative approach. Language Learning, 3, 387–417.
Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). Speaking: From intention to articulation. Boston, MA: The MIT Press.
Levelt, W. J. M. (1999). Models of word production. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3(6), 223–232.
Loban, W. (1976). Language development: Kindergarten through grade twelve (Research Report No. 18). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Malvern, D., & Richards, B. (2002). Investigating accommodation in a language proficiency interviews using a new measure of lexical diversity. Language Testing, 19(1), 85–104.
Meara, P., & Bell, H. (2001). P_Lex: A simple and effective way of describing the lexical characteristics of short L2 texts. Prospect, 16(3), 5–19.
Mehnert, U. (1998). The effects of different lengths of time for planning on second language performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20, 83–108.
Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2009). Towards an organic approach to investigating CAL in instructed SLA: The case of complexity. Applied Linguistics, 30(4), 555–578.
Norris, J. M. (2002). Interpretations, intended uses and designs in task-based language assessment. Language Testing, 19(4), 337–346.
Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pallant, J. (2013). SPSS survival annual: A step by step guide to data analysis using IB SPSS (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second language pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Read, J. (2000). Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Robinson, P. (2001). Task complexity, cognitive resources, and syllabus design: A triadic framework for examining task influences on SLA. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp.285–317). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Robinson, P. (2007). Task complexity, theory of mind, and intentional reasoning: Effects on L2 speech production, interaction, uptake and perceptions of task difficulty. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 45, 193–213.
Robinson, P., & Gilabert, G. (2013). Task-based learning: Cognitive underpinnings. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Robinson , P. , & Gilabert , R. ( 2007 ). Task complexity, the Cognition Hypothesis, and second language learning and performance . IRAL, 45, 161 – 176.
Samuda, V., & Bygate, M. (2008). Tasks in second language learning. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
Sanguran, J. (2005). The effects of focusing on meaning and form in strategic planning. In R. Ellis (Ed.), Planning and task performance in a second language (pp. 111-143). Amesterdam: John Benjamins.
Scarborough, H. S. (1990). Index of productive syntax. Applied Psycholinguistics, 11, 1–22.
Segalowitz, N. (2010). Cognitive bases of second language fluency. New York, NY: Routledge.
Shehadeh, A. (2012). Task-based language assessment: Components, development, and implementation. In C. Coombe, P. Davidson, B. O’Sullivan, & S. Stoynoff (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to second language assessment (pp.156–163). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second language learning. London: Edward Arnold.
Skehan P. (1996). A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics, 17(1), 38–62.
Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Skehan, P. (2001). Tasks and language performance. In M. Bygate, P. Skehan, & M. Swain (Eds.). Researching pedagogic tasks: Second language learning, teaching and testing (167–185). London: Longman.
Skehan, P. (2003). Task-based instruction. Language Teaching, 36, 1–14.
Skehan, P. (2009a). Modelling second language performance: Integrating complexity, accuracy, fluency and lexis. Applied Linguistics, 30(4), 510–532.
Skehan, P. (2009b). Lexical performance by native and non-native speakers on language-learning tasks. In B. Richards, H. Daller, D. D. Malvern, & P. Meara. (Eds.), Vocabulary studies in first and second language acquisition: The interface between theory and application (107–124). Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
Skehan, P. (2018). Second language task-Based performance: Theory, research, assessment. Abingdon: Routledge.
Skehan, P., Bei, X., Li, Q., & Wang, Z. (2012). The task is not enough: Processing approaches to task-based performance. Language Teaching Research, 16(2), 170–187.
Skehan, P., Foster, P., & Shum, S. (2016). Ladders and snakes in second language fluency. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 54(2), 97–112.
Skehan, P., & Shum, S. (2017). What influences performances? Personal style or the task being done? In L. Wong & K. Hyland (Eds.), Faces of English education: Students, teachers, and pedagogy (pp.28–43). New York, NY: Routledge.
Storch, N. (1999). Are two heads better than one? Pair work and grammatical accuracy. System, 27(3), 363–374.
Ure, J. (1971). Lexical density and register differentiation. In G. Perren & J. L. M. Trim (Eds.), Applications of linguistics (pp.443–452). London: Cambridge University Press.
Wigglesworth, G. (1997). An investigation of planning time and proficiency level on oral test discourse. Language Testing, 14(1), 85–106.
Willis, D., & Willis, J. (2007). Doing task-based teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cited by (6)
Cited by six other publications
Abdi Tabari, Mahmoud & Seyyed Ehsan Golparvar
2024. Cohesion in L2 writing: assessing the role of pre-task planning and topic familiarity through a task-readiness lens. The Language Learning Journal► pp. 1 ff.
Hasnain, Shazia & Santoshi Halder
2024. Intricacies of the Multifaceted Triad-Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency: A Review of Studies on Measures of Oral Production. Journal of Education 204:1 ► pp. 145 ff.
Hasnain, Shazia & Santoshi Halder
2024. The effect of Task-Based Language Teaching on the speaking fluency and accuracy of adult ESL learners: a study on trainee teachers in West Bengal. SN Social Sciences 4:10
Mostafaei Alaei, Mahnaz & Abbas Mansouri
2024. Unraveling the differential effects of task rehearsal and task repetition on L2 task performance: the mediating role of task modality. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching
Bui, Gavin & (Mark) Feng Teng
2019. Task Planning and Task‐Readiness. In The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, ► pp. 1 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 30 december 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.