Cover not available

Article In: Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability (DEIS) in Language Education
Edited by Subhan Zein
[AILA Review 39:2] 2026
► pp. 331–352

Student-student cooperation promotes diversity, inclusion, and the SDGs in language education

ORCiD logo with link | Kampung Senang Charity and Education Foundation
ORCiD logo with link | The Eco Chapter
This content is being prepared for publication; it may be subject to changes.
Abstract
Language learners are diverse in many ways. These differences include country of origin, ethnicity, gender, religion, social class, past achievement, sexual identity, neurotype, mother tongue, age, physical and mental disabilities, and previous education. Everyone deserves respect and the right to a learning environment in which their needs, both physiological and psychological, are met. This article explores how inclusion, diversity, and the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can meet these needs. Inclusion brings together diverse language users to benefit from what each can contribute based on their uniqueness, to empower others to do the same, and to use their language proficiency and other skills to make the world a better place. Various approaches in language education seek to support “unity in diversity” among students by facilitating student-student cooperation. Cooperative learning is one such approach. Since the 1970s, cooperative learning has established itself as a well-researched approach with a strong and wide theoretical grounding. Furthermore, scholars have linked cooperative learning to many other elements of the student-centered paradigm, including work that urges education to play a role in making society a better place rather than focusing solely on enhancing individuals’ own careers and lifestyles. The SDGs present a well-known example of how education can serve the greater good and build a world in which everyone, regardless of background, can be included in a grand effort to make the planet a place where everyone feels at home and can contribute to making that home a place where everyone can thrive.
Article outline
  • Diversity, inclusion, and the SDGs
  • Cooperative learning: History, theory, and research
  • Cooperative learning principles
    • Positive interdependence
    • Individual accountability
    • Equal opportunity to participate
    • Maximum peer interactions
    • Group accountability
    • Heterogeneous grouping
    • Cooperative skills
    • Cooperation as a value
  • Two cooperative learning techniques to illustrate the eight principles
    • Think Aloud Squares
    • Jigsaw
  • Conclusion
  • References
References (68)
References
Ahmed, A. O., & Abd Algane, M. (2024). An investigation of cooperative learning strategies in improving students’ comprehension skills in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL). Education and Linguistics Research, 10(2). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ainscow, M. (2020). Promoting inclusion and equity in education: Lessons from international experiences. Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy, 6(1), 7–16. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ainscow, M., Dyson, A., Goldrick, S., & West, M. (2012). Developing equitable education systems. Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Addison Wesley.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Al Malki, E. A. A., Gulnaz, F., Javid, C. Z., & Chaudhry, M. Z. (2022). An empirical investigation of the EFL learners’ attitudes toward the effectiveness of cooperative learning. Sage Open, 12(4). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Alzubi, A. A., Nazim, M., & Ahamad, J. (2024). Examining the effect of a collaborative learning intervention on EFL students’ English learning and social interaction. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 8(2), 26–46. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Aronson, E. (2002). Building empathy, compassion, and achievement in the jigsaw classroom. In J. M. Aronson (Ed.), Improving academic achievement: Impact of psychological factors on education (pp. 209–225). Academic Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2025). The jigsaw classroom. [URL]
Banks, J. A. (2016). Cultural diversity and education: Foundations, curriculum, and teaching (6th ed.). Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Beronilla, J. M., & Natividad, L. (2025). Heterogeneous over homogeneous grouping in the classroom: An argument for inclusive education. SSRN. [URL]
Bregman, R. (2020). Humankind: A hopeful history. Little, Brown.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chesterman, S. (2023, April 10). Meritocracy 2.0. SimonChesterman.com. [URL]
Cohen, E. G., & Lotan, R. A. (2014). Designing groupwork: Strategies for the heterogeneous classroom (3rd ed.). Teachers College Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Deutsch, M. (2011). Cooperation and competition. In Conflict, interdependence, and justice: The intellectual legacy of Morton Deutsch (pp. 23–40). [URL].
Dinh, C. T. (2025). Investigating EFL students’ perceived values of online cooperative learning in MOOCs. Contemporary Educational Technology, 17(1), Article ep552. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Einstein, A. (1950, March 29). Letter to a man who lost his son. In H. Nathan (Ed.), The New York Post.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
García, O., & Sarroub, L. K. (2025). Beyond puntos y rayas: Translanguaging pedagogy for language minoritized students. Literacy Research: Theory, Method, and Practice, 74(1), 76–91. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Halabi, S., Chernyak Hai, L., & Nadler, A. (2024). The meaning of seeking help: The effects of ascribed and achieved status of the help seeker on observer attributions, expectations, and willingness to offer help. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 54(9), 509–522. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Harmer, J. (2024). The practice of English language teaching (6th ed.). Pearson.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Iniesto, F., & Bossu, C. (2023). Equity, diversity, and inclusion in open education: A systemic literature review. Distance Education, 44(4), 694–711. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jacob, J. (2025). A background history of the Sustainable Development Goals. Sustainable Development, 33(2), 311–325. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jia, J., & Stapa, M. (2024). The use of English interaction strategies in cooperative learning: A case study of four Chinese college students’ spoken discourse. Journal of Nusantara Studies (JONUS), 9(1), 25–52. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1975). Learning together and alone: Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning. Prentice Hall.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2009). An educational psychology success story: Social interdependence theory and cooperative learning. Educational Researcher, 38(5), 365–379. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (2013). The nuts and bolts of cooperative learning. Interaction Book Company.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Stanne, M. B. (2000). Cooperative learning methods: A meta analysis. University of Minnesota.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Khan, A., Khan, M., & Haq, F. (2025). Cooperative learning strategies’ impact on students’ comprehension of reading in the English language. Review Journal of Social Psychology & Social Works, 3(1), 110–118. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. Longman.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kyndt, E., Raes, E., Lismont, B., Timmers, F., Dochy, F., & Cascallar, E. (2013). A meta analysis of the effects of face to face cooperative learning: Do recent studies falsify or verify earlier findings? Educational Research Review, 101, 133–149. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, C., Cherian, M., Ismail, R., Ng, M., Sim, J., & Chee, M. F. (2004). Children’s experiences of multiracial relationships in informal primary school settings. In A. E. Lai (Ed.), Beyond rituals and riots: Ethnic pluralism and social cohesion in Singapore (pp. 114–145). Eastern Universities Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lewin, K. (1935). A dynamic theory of personality. McGraw Hill.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Liang, X., Mohan, B. A., & Early, M. (1998). Issues of cooperative learning in ESL classes: A literature review. TESL Canada Journal, 15(2), 13–23. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lily, M., & Sharma, B. (2025). Inclusive society: A pathway to achieving Sustainable Development Goals. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 11(3), 503–510. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lim, S., Reidak, J., Chau, M. H., Zhu, C. H., Guo, Q., Brooks, T. A., Roe, J., & Jacobs, G. M. (2023). Cooperative learning and the SDGs. Peachey Publications. [URL]
Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413–468). Academic Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Maley, A., & Peachey, N. (Eds.). (2017). Integrating global issues in the creative English language classroom: With reference to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. British Council. [URL]
Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being (2nd ed.). Van Nostrand.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
McGroarty, M. (1989). The benefits of cooperative learning arrangements in second language instruction. NABE Journal, 13(2), 127–143. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1993). Cooperative learning and second language learning. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 131, 113–126. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nguyen, P. M., Terlouw, C., & Pilot, A. (2006). Culturally appropriate pedagogy: The case of group learning in a Confucian Heritage Culture context. Intercultural Education, 17(1), 1–19. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nisha, P. R. (2024). Comparing grammar translation method and communicative language teaching in EFL context. Journal of English Language Teaching, 5(1), 40–48. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nunan, D. (2023). Task based language teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Oster, L. (2001). Using the think aloud for reading instruction. The Reading Teacher, 55(1), 64–69.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Palincsar, A. S. (1998). Social constructivist perspectives on teaching and learning. Annual Review of Psychology, 491, 345–375. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pervez, S. (2025). English immersion at middle tier private schools in Karachi, Pakistan: A case study of students’ additive v. subtractive language learning experience. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 46(7), 1733–1748. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Richards, J. C. (2024). Curriculum development in language teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rogers, C., Lyon, H., & Tausch, R. (2013). On becoming an effective teacher: Person centered teaching, psychology, philosophy, and dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and Harold Lyon. Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rose, H., McKinley, J., & Galloway, N. (2021). Global Englishes and language teaching: A review of pedagogical research. Language Teaching, 54(2), 157–189. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ruas, L. (Ed.). (2020). Creating change: Global issues in Africa. IATEFL Global Issues Special Interest Group. [URL]
(Ed.). (2021). Creating global change. IATEFL Global Issues Special Interest Group. [URL]
Singapore Government. (2024). What are the racial proportions among Singapore citizens? [URL]
Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative learning: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stibbe, A. (2021). Ecolinguistics: Language, ecology and the stories we live by (2nd ed.). Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Storch, N. (2002). Patterns of interaction in ESL pair work. Language Learning, 52(1), 119–158. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Su, Y. R., Jaya, A., Hakim, M. A., & Syafiqah, N. (2025). The use of technology in task based language teaching (TBLT) to improve students’ speaking skills in a collaborative EFL learning environment. Journal of Education and Applied Teaching (JEAT), 1(2), 69–80. [URL]
Suseno, E. (2023). Paraphrasing a peer’s utterances to develop the students’ speaking fluency. Journal of Education Method and Learning Strategy, 1(3), 151–165. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. M. Gass & C. G. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235–253). Newbury House.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tan, C. (2017). Confucianism and education. In B. Lingard, S. Sellar, S. Lewis, & G. W. Noblit (Eds.), Oxford research encyclopedia of education (pp. 1–18). Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tang, K., Noordin, N., & Ismail, L. (2025). Evaluating the think aloud method for English reading: A systematic review. Cogent Education, 12(1), 2497150. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Thornbury, S. (2024). The new A Z of ELT: A dictionary of terms and concepts (2nd ed.). Macmillan Education.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tomasello, M. (2014). The ultra social animal. European Journal of Social Psychology, 44(3), 187–194. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Turner, G. (2012). The power of silence. A&C Black.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
UNESCO. (2012). Education for all. [URL]
United Nations. (n.d.). The 17 goals. [URL]
. (2016, March 1). Monitoring the SDGs in the Caribbean [Report]. ECLAC Caribbean. [URL]
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society (M. Cole, V. John Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Webb, N. M., Franke, M. L., De, T., Chan, A. G., Freund, D., Shein, P., & Melkonian, D. K. (2009). ‘Explain to your partner’: Teachers’ instructional practices and students’ dialogue in small groups. Cambridge Journal of Education, 39(1), 49–70. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zaki, J. (2022). Don’t let cynicism undermine your workplace. Harvard Business Review, 100(5), 70–78. [URL]
Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue