In:Basic Concepts and Models for Interpreter and Translator Training: Third edition
Daniel Gile
[Benjamins Translation Library 173] 2026
► pp. v–xvi
This content is being prepared for publication; it may be subject to changes.
Table of contents
List of figures and tables
Preface to the second revised edition
General introduction
Chapter 1.Theory in interpreter and translator training
Aims and overview of this chapter
1.Should formal training be a requirement for translators and
interpreters?
2.General components of translation competence
3.Training requirements are not uniform
3.1Initial training programmes for newcomers to translation
3.2Conversion courses/further training/continuing education
for practicing translators
for practicing translators
4.The need to optimize formal translator training
5.The process-oriented approach and product-oriented approach
in translator training
in translator training
6.Expected benefits of theoretical syllabus components in interpreter
and translator training
and translator training
7.Criteria and heuristics for theoretical syllabus components
for translator training
for translator training
8.Theoretical syllabus components for translator training: Where and how?
9.Models for training
10.This chapter’s main ideas
Appendix A.Social constructivism in translator training
Appendix B.ISIT (Paris) A short sequence of theory classes
for conference interpreter training
for conference interpreter training
Chapter 2.Communication and quality in interpreting and translation
Aims and overview of this chapter
1.Introduction
2.Professional Translation is primarily a communication act
2.1School translation vs. professional translation
2.2Who is involved in professional Translation? Common configurations
2.3Configurations in professional Translation: Other parties involved
2.4The Principals’ awareness of Translation
3.Aims and intentions in verbal communication and in translation
3.1Authors’ aims and intentions in verbal communication
3.1.1Communication — but not always
3.1.2The Texts’ targeted effects
3.1.3Aims can be layered
3.2Overall aims vs. local aims
4.The Translation’s skopos and its corollaries
5.The Translator’s role
6.So whose aims, intentions and interests do professional translators
serve? Loyalty options
7.Translation quality: A multi-dimensional construct
7.1Content, form/packaging and value-for-cost
7.1.1Packaging
7.1.2The message
7.1.3Value-for-cost
7.2Behavioural components of quality
7.3Translation quality also depends on factors
beyond the translators’ control
beyond the translators’ control
7.4Quality perception is relative and variable
7.5The principals’ position in the translation-mediated
communication configuration affects their ability
to assess translation quality
communication configuration affects their ability
to assess translation quality
7.5.1Authors
7.5.2Receivers of the target-language Text
7.5.3Clients
7.5.4The translators performing the assignment
7.5.5Revisors
7.6Motivation, attention and other biases
in Translation quality perception
in Translation quality perception
7.7Quantifying interpreting quality?
8.Social status and quality
9.Teaching suggestions
10.What students need to understand and remember
Appendix A.The interpreter’s role in signed language interpreting: A few idiosyncrasies
Appendix B.Quality assessment in written translation: A classroom demonstration
Appendix C.A mathematical formula for quality as a multidimensional variable
Chapter 3.Fidelity in translation: An experiment and a model
Aims and overview of the chapter
1.Introduction
2.Verbalizing ideas: An experiment
2.1Phase one: Verbalizing a simple Message
2.1.1Guiding Frame Information (GFI)
2.1.2Linguistically/Culturally Induced Information (LCII)
2.1.3Personal Information (PI)
2.2Phase two, version 1: Translating a simple statement
2.3Phase two, version 2: A second verbalization
3.Principles of fidelity
3.1The Message: The default value and other options
3.2Guiding Frame Information
3.3Linguistically/Culturally Induced Information
3.4Personal Information
3.5A synopsis
4.Secondary information: An obstacle and a help
4.1The language-pair specificity of LCII-generated problems
4.2Interpreting vs. translation from the secondary
information perspective
information perspective
5.Teaching suggestions
5.1The experiment, its expected effects and limitations
5.1.1Interpreting students vs. translation students
5.1.2Practical aspects
5.1.3Secondary information cannot always be identified
5.1.4Going overboard?
5.2A road-map metaphor
6.What students need to remember
Appendix A.Data from a replication in Canada
Appendix B.Data from a replication in France
Chapter 4.Understanding specialized discourse in interpreting and translation
Aims and overview of the chapter
1.Introduction
2.How linguistic knowledge, extralinguistic knowledge and analysis interact
to produce comprehension
to produce comprehension
2.1A basic comprehension formula
2.2Analysis
2.3More about the relations between the components
in the comprehension formula
in the comprehension formula
2.3.1Subjective feelings of comprehension
2.3.2Linguistic knowledge
2.3.3Extralinguistic knowledge
2.3.4Analysis
2.3.5The time factor
3.Translation and the comprehension of specialized texts
3.1An example: Hematogenous tuberculosis
3.2The layperson’s comprehension
3.2.1Network-like representations of sentences
3.2.2Clear? Partly clear? Obscure?
4.The Translator’s acquired specialized knowledge in the long term
5.Teaching suggestions
6.What students need to remember
Appendix A.Schematas
Chapter 5.A Sequential Model of translation
Aims of the chapter
1.Introduction
2.The Model
2.1The comprehension phase
2.1.1The Meaning Hypothesis
2.1.2The Plausibility Test
2.2The reformulation phase
2.2.1Initial reformulation
2.2.2Fidelity and Acceptability tests
2.2.3Fidelity and Acceptability tests on Translation Unit
aggregates
3.Further observartions
3.1The Sequential Model vs. comprehension and production
in everyday life
in everyday life
3.2The Model versus translation as it is
practiced
3.2.1Processing single vs. multiple Translation Units at a
time
3.2.2Separation between comprehension and reformulation
in the field and during training
in the field and during training
3.2.3The translator’s solutions vs. reader and client
satisfaction
3.2.4Unsolved translation problems: A fact of life
3.2.5Decision-making, risks, gains and losses
3.2.6Is the sequential flow in translation as outlined
in the Model really linear?
in the Model really linear?
3.2.7Tests on groups of Translation Units
3.3The Knowledge Base
3.4Revision
4.Interpreting vs. translation under the perspective of the Sequential
Model
4.1Available time for processing and knowledge acquisition
4.2Self-correction
4.3Limitations on the size of TU aggregates to test and improve before
finalizing the Translation
5.Teaching the Sequential Model
5.1Raising the students’ awareness
5.1.1The Comprehension Loop
5.1.2The Reformulation Loop
5.2Major points when presenting the Model to students
5.3The Sequential Model and error analysis
5.3.1Insufficient command of the source language
5.3.2Insufficient analysis in the comprehension phase followed by
insufficiently careful reviewing in the reformulation phase
5.3.3Weak extralinguistic knowledge
5.3.4Faulty ad hoc Knowledge Acquisition
5.3.5Insufficient efforts in the Reformulation Loop
5.3.6Insufficient target-language writing skills
5.4IPDR: Problem and decision reporting by students
5.5The Sequential Model and professionalism
6.Ideas that students need to remember
Appendix A.Examples of translation errors and weaknesses and of diagnoses
using the Sequential Model
using the Sequential Model
Appendix B.Translation Units: What are they really?
Chapter 6.Ad hoc Knowledge Acquisition in interpreting and
translation
Aims of this chapter
1.Introduction
2.The three types of information required for ad hoc
Knowledge Acquisition
2.1Linguistic information
2.1.1Lexical information, including terminological information
2.1.2Stylistic and phraseological information
2.2Content-related extralinguistic information
2.3Translation assignment-related information
3.Information sources and resources for ad hoc Knowledge
Acquisition
3.1A preliminary point: DIY or AI?
3.2Classifying information sources
3.3Fundamental variables in the characterization of information sources
in Translation work
in Translation work
4.Knowledge acquisition strategies in written translation
4.1Time aspects
4.2Selecting documentary sources
4.2.1Starting-point sources and end-point sources
4.2.2Access
4.3Using electronic resources and sources
4.4Individually developed information sources
4.5Human sources and paid resource persons
5.Ad hoc Knowledge Acquisition and preparation in
interpreting
5.1Advance preparation
5.1.1Conference documents
5.1.2Briefings and conference rehearsals
5.1.3Conceptual priority vs. terminological priority?
5.1.4Glossaries
5.2Last-minute preparation
5.3In-conference knowledge acquisition
6.Long-term knowledge build-up in interpreters vs. translators
7.Teaching suggestions
7.1General principles
7.2In-class demonstrations for translation students
7.3In-class demonstrations for interpreting students?
8.Particularly important points that students need to remember
Appendix A.Classroom demonstrations of terminological knowledge acquisition: A case study
Appendix B.Browsing the Web for ad hoc Knowledge
Acquisition: It looks like a duck…
Chapter 7.The Effort Models
Aims and overview of the chapter
1.Introduction: ‘Interpreting is difficult’
2.The Effort Model for simultaneous interpreting: An introspective-intuitive first step
3.The ‘Efforts’ as controlled operations
3.1Does the idea of limited ‘mental energy’ as applied to ‘interpreting
Efforts’ make sense? Controlled vs. automatic processes
Efforts’ make sense? Controlled vs. automatic processes
3.2The Reception Effort
3.2.1Listening comprehension is effortful
3.2.2Difficulty-enhancing factors during interpreting
3.3The Production Effort
3.3.1The challenges of speech production
3.3.2Speech production when interpreting: Difficulty-enhancing factors
3.3.3Speech production when interpreting: Facilitating factors
3.3.4Beyond linguistic formulation of information: Decision-making under pressure
3.4The Memory Effort
3.4.1The effortful nature of short-term memory operations
3.4.2Working memory
3.4.3What distinguishes the Memory Effort construct
from the working memory construct
from the working memory construct
3.5The Coordination/attention management Effort
3.6Explaining interpreting challenges with the Effort Models: A first glimpse
3.6.1The additivity of individual Efforts’ attentional
requirements
3.6.2Cognitive saturation
3.6.3The tightrope hypothesis
3.7How does insufficient processing capacity lead to Errors,
Omissions and Infelicities? ‘Failure sequences’
Omissions and Infelicities? ‘Failure sequences’
3.8The good news: Automation of controlled tasks
4.Other Effort Models
4.1A Model for simultaneous with text
4.2An Effort Model for simultaneous with highly embedded
technology
4.3An Effort Model for simultaneous into a signed language
4.4An Effort Model for feed interpreting
(in signed language interpreting)
(in signed language interpreting)
4.5An Effort Model for simultaneous from a signed language
into a spoken language
into a spoken language
4.6An Effort Model for sight translation
4.7An Effort Model for consecutive interpreting
4.7.1The comprehension phase
4.7.2The reformulation phase
4.8An Effort Model for written translation?
5.More Efforts?
5.1Distinct Efforts or cognitive components of existing Efforts?
5.2HSC: The Human and Social Consideration Effort
6.Analyzing cognitive challenges in interpreting with the Effort Models
(‘cognitive economics’)
(‘cognitive economics’)
6.1Cognitive problem triggers
6.1.1High information density
6.1.2Poor signal quality
6.1.3Unexpectedness
6.1.4Short speech segments with little redundancy
6.1.5Speech segments requiring much switching of attention and
retention in working memory: Composite names
6.1.6Speech segments requiring much switching of attention and
retention in working memory: Numbers with several
different digits
different digits
6.1.7Speech segments requiring retention in working memory
and calculations: Calendar differences
and calculations: Calendar differences
6.1.8Lexical gaps
6.2Cognitive pressure, cognitive effort and cognitive load
6.2.1Cognitive pressure
6.2.2Cognitive effort and disengagement
6.2.3Cognitive load
6.2.4Cognitive effort and interpreting quality
6.2.5Anxiety as a cognitive problem trigger
6.3Local and imported cognitive load
7.Testing the Effort Models?
7.1The Effort Models are a didactic construct
7.2Testing the Tightrope Hypothesis?
8.The ‘processing capacity’ construct in interpreting
8.1Processing capacity: A neuroscientific view
8.2Performance improvement in students
9.The Effort Models and quantification
10.Teaching the Effort Models
11.What students need to remember
Appendix A.Cognitive economics and the Tightrope Hypothesis: A financial metaphor
Appendix B.Consecutive interpreting in conference interpreter training
Chapter 8.Working languages in interpreting: A cognitive view
Aims of this chapter
1.Introduction
2.Speech comprehension and speech production under high pressure
2.1Discourse comprehension: From word recognition
to the construction of meaning
to the construction of meaning
2.2Language errors and infelicities in the interpreters’ output
3.Discourse comprehension and production: A metaphor
3.1Long-term memory and working memory
3.2The speech production process: An outline
3.3The speech comprehension process: An outline
3.4Linguistic information in long-term memory
3.5What determines language availability?
3.6The consequences of insufficient language availability on speech
comprehension and production in interpreting
3.6.1In speech production
3.6.2In speech comprehension
4.The Gravitational Model of language availability
4.1The nature and main features of the model
4.2The dynamics of the Gravitational Model
4.3From production and comprehension to comprehension only?
5.Further points about language availability in conference
interpreting
5.1General language, sociolects and languages for specific
purposes
5.2Testing language mastery of candidates to admission to conference
interpreter training programmes
5.3Active languages and passive languages
5.4Oral and written availability: Translators vs. interpreters
5.5Language interference and mono-directional
vs. bi-directional interpreting
vs. bi-directional interpreting
5.6Translinguistic associations in Translation
6.A-languages versus B-languages
6.1On the justification of a distinction
between A-languages and B-languages
between A-languages and B-languages
6.2How realistic is the distinction
between A-languages and B-languages?
between A-languages and B-languages?
6.3Implications: Directionality
7.Language skills enhancement: Materials, principles and techniques
7.1General principles
7.2Learning materials
7.3Language immersion
7.4Practical exercises
7.5How can AI help?
8.Language-specificity and language-pair specificity in
interpreting
8.1Possible language-specific differences in speech
comprehension
8.1.1Differences in cognitive vulnerability
in the perception of words
in the perception of words
8.1.2Grammatical redundancies
8.1.3Syntactic structures
8.1.4Sociolinguistic aspects
8.2Language-specific and language pair-specific differences
in speech production
in speech production
8.3Culture-specific difficulties
8.4Implications for training
9.Teaching suggestions
Chapter 9.Techniques, strategies and tactics: Coping with cognitive pressure
Aims of this chapter
1.Introduction
2.A core technique in consecutive interpreting: Note taking
2.1Choosing a language for note-taking
2.2Note layout
2.3Advantages and limitations of symbols
3.Conference preparation strategies and techniques
3.1The availability of extralinguistic knowledge
3.2Conference preparation techniques: A cognitive economics view
3.2.1Glossaries
3.2.2Annotating texts to be read out or sight-translated
3.2.3Finding and listening to audio- and video-recordings
of speakers before a conference
of speakers before a conference
4.Coping tactics in interpreting
4.1Comprehension challenges and tactics
4.1.1Waiting
4.1.2Reconstructing the meaning with the help of the context
4.1.3Using the boothmate’s help
4.2Preventive tactics and techniques
4.2.1Anticipation
4.2.2On the fly notes (in simultaneous)
4.2.3Lengthening or shortening one’s Ear-Voice Span
4.2.4Segmenting the source speech and unloading working memory: The linearity technique
4.3Reformulation tactics
4.3.1Delaying the reformulation/stalling
4.3.2Using the boothmate’s help
4.3.3Consulting documents in the booth
4.3.4Replacing a segment with a superordinate term
or a more general speech segment
or a more general speech segment
4.3.5Explaining or paraphrasing
4.3.6Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech
4.3.7‘Instant naturalization’
4.3.8Word-for-word transcoding
4.3.9Beyond lexical transcoding: Form-based interpreting
4.3.10Informing listeners of a problem
4.3.11Referring delegates to a visual information source
4.3.12Tactical omission
4.3.13‘Parallel’ speech
4.3.14Switching off the microphone
5.‘Laws’ in the selection of coping tactics in simultaneous
interpreting
6.Tactics in consecutive interpreting, sight translation
and simultaneous with text
and simultaneous with text
7.Tactics in translation
8.Teaching suggestions
9.What students need to remember
Appendix A.On the distinction between techniques, strategies and tactics
Appendix B.Interpretese
Chapter 10.Integrating more theory into training: The IDRC framework
1.Introduction: A guiding framework for Translation theories
2.The IDRC framework: Interpretation, Decisions, Resources and Constraints
2.1Constraints and resources in Translation
2.2Interpretation and decisions in Translation
2.2.1Interpretation
2.2.2Decisions
2.3The structure of the IDRC model
2.4Features of the IDRC framework
3.IDRC as a framework for the introduction of Translation theories
3.1Using IDRC as a map-like structure
3.2Translation theories and schools of thought viewed
from the IDRC angle
from the IDRC angle
3.2.1The Translation’s function and Skopos Theory
3.2.2Translation norms and Toury’s ideas
3.2.3Domestication vs. Foreignization
(Lawrence Venuti, Antoine Berman)
(Lawrence Venuti, Antoine Berman)
3.2.4Interpretive Theory: An approach to Translation cognition
3.2.5Cognition: Chernov’s probabilistic prognosis theory
3.2.6Cognition: Cognitive psychology, Relevance Theory
and the Information Processing Approach
and the Information Processing Approach
3.2.7Translation universals
4.Translation theories complement each other more
than they contradict each other
than they contradict each other
5.Using IDRC in the classroom
5.1The role of IDRC: A reminder
5.2IDRC in the classroom
Glossary
Bibliography
Name index
Concept index
