Cover not available
Article published In:
Ethnolinguistic contact across the Indo-Myanmar-Southwestern China mountains
Edited by Alexander R. Coupe, Randy J. LaPolla and Hideo Sawada
[Asian Languages and Linguistics 4:2] 2023
► pp. 224–250

Geolinguistic approach to migration history in the south-eastern edge of the Tibetosphere

A case study of Sangdam Tibetan and methodological remarks

ORCID logo | Kyoto University
This article examines the migration history of Tibetic language-speaking people in the south-eastern corner of the Tibetosphere, particularly the origin of Sangdam Tibetan, spoken in Kachin State, Myanmar, by adopting a geolinguistic approach with linguistic maps. It first presents the current research progress of geolinguistics in the region and then discusses phonological and lexical features to elucidate the dialect position of Sangdam Tibetan based on the data available in its adjacent areas, such as Eastern Tibet and Yunnan in China. In addition, this study highlights the geolinguistic method’s potential and difficulties in addressing migration history.
Keywords: Tibetic, Southern Khams, geolinguistics, linguistic map, migration history
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Data and background
  • 3.Geolinguistic analyses
    • 3.1Mapping of lexical features
    • 3.2Mapping of a single phonological feature
    • 3.3Mapping of phonological-lexical features: ‘Dog’ in the Southern Khams region
    • 3.4Mapping of phonological diversities in the Southern Khams region
    • Summary
  • 4.Methodological remarks
    • 1.Loanwords and lexical strata
    • 2.Grammatical features
    • 3.Methodological issues
  • 5.Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
Published online: 25 April 2024
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/alal.00013.suz
References (118)
References
Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (2018). Evidentiality: The framework. In Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of evidentiality (pp. 1–44). Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
ALE = Atlas linguarum Europae. (1976–).Google Scholar
Aoki, Bunkyoo. (2010). Seizoo zensi [Reports on Tibet]. Emended by Yasuhiko Nagano and Yasuko Koomoto. Husoo syoboo syuppan.Google Scholar
Bielmeier, Roland, Häsler, Katrin, Haller, Chungda, Haller, Felix, Hein, Veronika, Huber, Brigitte, Volkart, Marianne, Preiswerk, Thomasze, Ngawang Tsering, Widmer, Manuel, and Zemp, Marius. (2018). Comparative dictionary of Tibetan dialects (CDTD), Vol. 2. Verbs. De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bouvier, Jean-Claude et Martel, Claude. (2016). La langue d’oc telle qu’on la parle–: Atlas linguistique de la Provence. Les Alpes de Lumière.Google Scholar
Cao, Zhiyun. (2008). Hanyu fangyan dituji [Linguistic atlas of Chinese dialects]. Shangwu yinshuguan.Google Scholar
Dawa Drolma and Suzuki, Hiroyuki. (2023). The paradigmaticity of evidentials in the Tibetic languages of Khams. Studies in Language, online-first.DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Denwood, Philip. (1999). Tibetan. John Benjiamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
DTLF = Les Missionnaires Catholiques du Thibet (1899). Dictionnaire thibétain-latin-français. Imprimerie de la Société des Missions Étrangères.Google Scholar
Ebihara, Shiho. (2013). The inclusive-exclusive distinction in Spoken and Written Tibetan. In Tsuguhito Takeuchi, Kazushi Iwao, Ai Nishida, Seiji Kumagai, and Meishi Yamamoto (Eds.), Current issues and progress in Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the Third International Seminar of Young Tibetologists (pp. 85–102). Research Institute of Foreign Studies, Kobe City University of Foreign Studies. [URL]
Endo, Mitsuaki, Minegishi, Makoto, Shirai, Satoko, Suzuki, Hiroyuki, and Kurabe, Keita (Eds.) (2021). Linguistic atlas of Asia. Hituzi Syobo.Google Scholar
Fukazawa, Mika. (2017). A manual for drawing geolinguistic maps with ArcGIS Online. In Hiroyuki Suzuki and Mitsuaki Endo (Eds.), Proceedings of the Workshop “Geolinguistic Method and Southeast Asian Linguistics” (pp. 16–33). Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. [URL]
Fukushima, Chitsuko. (2017). Methods and principles of geolinguistics. In Hiroyuki Suzuki and Mitsuaki Endo (Eds.), Proceedings of the Workshop “Geolinguistic Method and Southeast Asian Linguistics” (pp. 10–15). Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. [URL]
Fukushima, Chitsuko, Shirai, Satoko, Fukazawa, Mika, Suzuki, Hiroyuki, and Endo, Mitsuaki (Eds.) (2023). Linguistic atlas of Asia and Africa III. Geolinguistics Society of Japan DOI logoGoogle Scholar
GAJ = Kokuritu kokugo kenkyuuzyo (Eds.) (1989–2006). Hoogen bunpoo zenkoku tizu [Grammar atlas of Japanese dialects]. Zaimusyoo insatukyoku. Online maps available at: [URL].
Gawne, Lauren. (2021). Reported evidentiality in Tibeto-Burman languages. Himalayan Linguistics, 20 (1), 80–115. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gilliéron, Jules. (1918). Généalogie des mots qui désignent l’abeille–: d’après l’Atlas linguistique de la France. Librairie ancienne Honoré Champion.Google Scholar
Giraudeau, Pierre Philippe and Françis Goré. (1956). Dictionnaire français-tibétain (Tibet oriental). Adrien-Maisonneuve.Google Scholar
Grootaers, Willem A. (1976). Nihon no hoogentirigaku no tame ni [Towards a dialect geography of Japan]. Heibonsya.Google Scholar
(1994). Tyuugoku no hoogentirigaku no tame ni [Towards a dialect geography of China]. Koobun syuppan.Google Scholar
Häsler, Katrin Louise. (1999). A grammar of the Tibetan Dege སྡེ་དགེ་ (Sde dge) dialect. Selbstverlag.Google Scholar
Hoshi, Izumi. (2020). Amudo-Tibettogo Mesyul hoogen no on’in tokutyoo [Phonological features of the sMadshul dialect of Amdo Tibetan]. In Izumi Hoshi, Shiho Ebihara, gNam-thar-rgyal, and Yusuke Bessho, Tibetto bokutiku bunka ziten (Tibettogo-Nihongo) (pp. xxvii–xxxviii). Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Huang, He. (2022). Yong jicheng shuju fenxi zengjia ABA fenbu dui yuyin xianxiang de jieshi xiaoli [Improving the explanatory power of ABA distribution on phonological phenomena by aggregate data analysis]. In Iwata Ray Jiaoshou rongxiu jinian lunwenji bianjizu (Ed.), Iwata Ray Jiaoshou rongxiu jinian lunwenji (xiace) (pp. 53–65). Geolinguistic Society of Japan. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Iwasa, Kazue. (2018). Remarks on maps of the Yi script based on the Swadesh 100 wordlist. Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. [URL]
Iwata, Ray (Ed.) (2009). Hanyu fangyan jieshi ditu [Interpretative maps of Chinese dialects]. Hakuteisya. Online version available at: [URL]
Jiang, Di. (2002). Zangyu yuyinshi yanjiu [Study on Tibetan sound history]. Minzu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Jin, Youjing (Ed.) (1992). Zhongguo Lahuyu fangyan dituji [Linguistic atlas of the Lahu dialects in China]. Shehuikexueyuan Chubanshe.Google Scholar
sKal-bzang ’Gyur-med (1985). Zangyu Batanghua yuyin fenxi [Phonological analysis of Tibetan mBathang dialect]. Minzu Yuwen, 2 1, 16–23.Google Scholar
sKal-bzang ’Gyur-med and sKal-bzang dByangs-can (2002). Zangyu fangyan gailun [Introduction to Tibetan dialectology]. Minzu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Kitamura, Hajime. (1977). Tibetan (Lhasa dialect). Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa.Google Scholar
Klieger, P. Christiaan. (2003). Modern Tibet-Burma trade caravans－A transnational economic structure of the 21st century. Dangdai Zangxue xueshu yantaohui lunwenji (pp. 110–135). Meng-Zang Weiyuanhui.Google Scholar
. (2006). A tale of the Tibeto-Burman ‘pygmies’. In P. Christiaan Klieger (Ed.), Tibetan Borderlands (Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the IATS, 2003. Volume 2) (pp. 231–254). Brill. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kolb, Eduard, Glauser, Beat, Elmer, Willy, and Stamm, Renate. (1979). Atlas of English sounds. A. Francke Verlag.Google Scholar
König, Werner. (1978). Deutsche Sprache. Mit 155 Abbildungsseiten in Farbe. (Graphiker: Hans-Joachim Paul). Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag.Google Scholar
LAJ = Kokuritu kokugo kenkyuuzyo (Eds.) (1966–1974). Nihon gengo tizu [Linguistic atlas of Japan]. Ookurasyoo insatukyoku. Maps available at: [URL]
LaPolla, Randy J. (1994). Parallel grammaticalizations in Tibeto-Burman languages: Evidence of Sapir’s ‘drift’. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 17 (1), 61–77. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2009). Causes and effects of substratum, superstratum and adstratum influence, with reference to Tibeto-Burman languages. In Nagano, Yasuhiko (Ed.) Issues in Tibeto-Burman historical linguistics (pp. 243–253). National Museum of Ethnology. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lasi Bawk Naw (2003). Biodiversity, culture, indigenous knowledge, nature & wildlife conservation programme in Kachin State, Myanmar: An overview of conservation training in Kachin State between 1999 and 2003. Yangon.Google Scholar
(2007). Traditions, beliefs and practices: Links with nature conservation in Kachin State. Yangon.Google Scholar
Li, Chunmei and Suzuki, Hiroyuki. (2020). Affricate series in Jintang Tibetan (Darmdo Municipality, Sichuan). Kyoto University Linguistic Research, 39 1, 1–22. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Liu, Jie. (2021). Xizang Songgu Zhahua yanjiu [Study on the Dza speech of Songgu, Tibet Autonomous Region]. Doctoral dissertation, Minzu University of China.
Mikulėnienė, Danguolė and Stafecka, Anna (Eds.) (2013). Baltu valodu atlants: Leksika 1 Flora/Baltų kalbų atlasas: Leksika 1 Flora/Atlas of the Baltic Languages: Lexis 1 Flora. Otrais izlabots un papildinats izdevums/Antrasis pataisytas ir papildytas leidimas/Second revised edition. Lietuvių Kalbos Institutas.Google Scholar
Mortensen, Eric D. (2019). Boundaries of the borderlands: Mapping Gyelthang. In Stéphane Gros (Ed.), Frontier Tibet: Patterns of change in the Sino-Tibetan borderlands (pp. 115–140). Amsterdam University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Moulton, William G. (1960). The short vowel systems of Northern Switzerland. Word, 16 (2), 155–182. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nagano, Yasuhiko (Ed.) (2009). Issues in Tibeto-Burman historical linguistics. National Museum of Ethnology. [URL]
de Nebesky-Wojkowitz, René. (1956). Oracles and demons of Tibet: The cult and iconography of the Tibetan protective deities. ’s-Gravenhage: Mouton.Google Scholar
Nishida, Tatsuo. (1987). Tibettogo no hensen to mozi [Development and scripts of Tibetan]. In Yasuhiko Nagano and Musashi Tachikawa (Eds.), Tibetto no gengo to bunka (pp. 108–169). Toozyusya.Google Scholar
Onishi, Takuichiro. (2016). Kotoba no tirigaku: Hoogen ha naze soko ni aru noka [Geography of languages; Why a dialect exists there]. Taisyuukan Syoten.Google Scholar
Ozaki, Takashi. (2007). Maborosi no yama, Kakaborazi – Booken kazoku, Myanmaa no saikoohoo hatutootyoo [The extremely rare mountain, Hkakabo Razi: The first ascent of the highest mountain in Myanmar by an adventure family]. Yama to keikoku sya.Google Scholar
Qin, Liying and Suzuki, Hiroyuki. (2016). Chasing a cat from the Mekong to the Salween: A geolinguistic description of ‘cat’ in Trung and Khams Tibetan in North-western Yunnan. Studies in Asian Geolinguistics, I 1, 61–71. [URL]
Qu, Aitang and Jin, Xiaojing. (1983). Zangyu fangyan de yanjiu fangfa [Methodology of the study of Tibetan dialects]. Xinan Minzu Xueyuan Xuebao 31: 76–84.Google Scholar
Roche, Gerald and Suzuki, Hiroyuki. (2017). Mapping the linguistic minorities of the eastern Tibetosphere. Studies in Asian Geolinguistics, VI 1, 28–42. [URL]
. (2018). Tibet’s minority languages: Diversity and endangerment. Modern Asian Studies, 52 (4), 1227–1278. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Shirai, Satoko. (2020). A geolinguistic study of directional prefixes in the Qiangic language area. Himalayan Linguistics, 19 (1), 365–392. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2021). Negative markers in Qiangic languages. In Yasuhiko Nagano and Takumi Ikeda (Eds.), Grammatical phenomena of Sino-Tibetan languages 4: Link languages and archetypes in Tibeto-Burman (pp. 243–257). Institute for Research in Humanities, Kyoto University. [URL]
Shirai, Satoko, Suzuki, Hiroyuki, and Kurabe, Keita. (2018). Semantic shifts in expressions for ‘it rains’ in Tibeto-Burman. Studies in Asian Geolinguistics, VIII 1, 62–76. [URL]
Sibata, Takesi. (1969). Gengotirigaku no hoohoo [Methods in linguistic geography]. Tikuma Syobo.Google Scholar
Song, Cheng, Xie, Yingying, Li, Daqin, and Li, Zuowen. (2019). Xizang Chayu Songlinyu [The Songlin language in rDzayul, Tibet Autonomous Region]. Minzu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Стойков, Ст. и Бернщейн, С. Б. (1964). Български диалектен атлас I: югоизточна България [Bulgarian dialect atlas I: South-eastern Bulgaria]. Издателство на Българската академия на науките.Google Scholar
Sun, Kai, gNam-sras lHa-rgyal, and Sangs-rgyas-mkhar (2022). Yushu Zangyu (Labuhua) fanshen-qiangdiao rencheng daici de chubu kaocha [A preliminary study on reflexive-intensifier pronouns in Yulshul (Lab) Tibetan]. In Iwata Ray Jiaoshou rongxiu jinian lunwenji bianjizu (Ed.), Iwata Ray Jiaoshou rongxiu jinian lunwenji (xiace) (pp. 129–146). Geolinguistic Society of Japan. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Suzuki, Hiroyuki. (2005). Tibettogo onsetu koozoo no kenkyuu [Study on the Tibetan syllable structure]. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 69 1, 1–23. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2007). Sensei minzoku sooroo Tibettogo hoogen kenkyuu [Study on Tibetic dialects in the Ethnic Corridor of West Sichuan]. Doctoral dissertation, Kyoto University. DOI logo
. (2011). Phonetic analysis of dGudzong Tibetan: The vernacular of Khams Tibetan spoken in the rGyalrong area. Bulletin of National Museum of Ethnology, 35 (4), 617–653. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2012a). Kamutibettogo Sangdam hoogen no onsei bunseki to sono hoogen tokutyoo [Phonetic description of the Sangdam dialect of Khams Tibetan and its dialectal characteristics]. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 83 1, 37–58. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2012b). Gansu-sheng Gannan-syuu Zhuoni-ken no tibettogo hoogen ni tuite: Zoobun taioo keisiki kara mita Zhagulu [Bragkhoglung] hoogen no hoogen tokutyoo [On the Tibetan dialect in Cone County, Gannan Prefecture, Gansu Province: Dialectal characteristics of the Bragkhoglung dialect based on the sound correspondence with Literary Tibetan]. Kyoto Univerisity Linguistic Research, 31 1, 1–23. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2013a). Extraordinary sound development of *s and *z in mBalhag Tibetan (Shangri-La, Yunnan). Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 36 (1), 101–110. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2013b). Yunnan Weixi Zangyu de r jieyin yuyin yanbian: Jiantan “erhua” yu “jinhou” zhi jiaocha guanxi [Sound change of the r-glide in Weixi Tibetan in Yunnan: With a discussion on the mutual relationship between ‘rhotacisation’ and ‘tense-throated’]. Dongfang Yuyanxue, 13 1, 20–35.Google Scholar
. (2013c). Kamutibettogo Tacheng-Gedeng [sKobsteng] hoogen no onsei bunseki [Phonetic description of the sKobsteng dialect of Khams Tibetan]. Asian and African Languages and Linguistics (AALL), 8 1, 123–161. DOI logo
. (2014). Issues in the lexical complexity in Eastern Tibetic languages: From a cat’s eye. In Mitsuaki Endo (Ed.), Papers from the Second International Conference on Asian Geolinguistics (pp. 116–125). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2015). Dongfang Zangqu zhuyuyan yanjiu [Studies in languages in the eastern Tibetosphere]. Sichuan Minzu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
. (2016a). Zangyu fangyanxue yanjiu yu yuyan ditu: Ruhe kandai “Kangfangyan” [Tibetan dialectological study and linguistic maps: How to deal with “Khams dialect”]. Minzu Xuekan, 2 1, 1–13+92–94. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2016b). In defense of prepalatal non-fricative sounds and symbols: Towards the Tibetan dialectology. Researches in Asian Languages, 10 1, 99–125. [URL]
. (2018a). Xianggelila si hokubu no Kamutibettogo syohoogen no hougen sai to sono keisei [Dialectal variation and development of Khams Tibetan in northern Shangri-La Municipality]. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 95 1, 5–63. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2018b). 100 linguistic maps of the Swadesh word list of Tibetic languages from Yunnan. Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. [URL]
. (2021a). Kamutibettogo Chawalong [Tshawarong] hoogen no onsei kizyutu to goi [Phonetic description and the vocabulary of Khams Tibetan Tshawarong dialect]. Asian and African Languages and Linguistics (AALL), 15 1, 105–137. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2021b). Cong diliyuyanxue de jiaodu kan Yunnan Zangyu /l/ ji /j/ de lishi fazhan [Historical development of the /l/ and /j/ sounds in Yunnan Tibetan from a geolinguistic context]. In Hiroyuki Suzuki and Mitsuaki Endo (Eds.), Zhongguo yuyan dili yanjiu lunwenji (pp. 21–38). Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2022a). Yuyin yanbian de diliyuyanxue jieshi: Yi Yunnan Xianggelila Zangyu wei li [Geolinguistic interpretation of the sound change process: A case study of Sems-kyi-nyila Tibetan of Yunnan]. Changshu Ligong Xueyuan Xuebao, 1 1, 58–64. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2022b). Geolinguistics in the eastern Tibetosphere: An introduction. Geolinguistic Society of Japan. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2022c). Dian-Chuan-Zang jiaojiechu Zangyuzhi yuyan zhong de “gou”: Qi xingshi de diliyuyanxue fenxi [‘Dog’ in Tibetic languages of the boundary area of Sichuan, Yunnan, and Tibet: A geolinguistic analysis of its word form]. In Iwata Ray Jiaoshou rongxiu jinian lunwenji bianjizu (Ed.), Iwata Ray Jiaoshou rongxiu jinian lunwenji (shangce) (pp. 253–263). Geolinguistic Society of Japan. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2022d). Kamutibettogo Pengba [Phongpa] hoogen no hoogen keitoo [Dialectal classification of the Phongpa dialect of Khams Tibetan]. Tokyo University Linguistic Papers, 44 1, e133–e147. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2022e). The dialectal affiliation of Tibetic varieties in gYagrwa within Yunnan Tibetan. Kyoto University Linguistic Research, 41 1, 43–68. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2023a). Kamutibettogo Suoduoxi/Gainaxi [Gadnagshod] hoogen no hoogen tokutyoo to goi [Dialectal characteristics of Khams Tibetan Zurdoshod/Gadnagshod dialect: Accompanied with its vocabulary]. Asian and African Languages and Linguistics (AALL), 17 1, 1–39. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2023b). Tyamudo-si Mankan-ken no gengo zizyoo: Raron-Ma-go no sonzai to Kamutibettogo no hoogen kubun ni tyakumoku site [Linguistic situation of sMarkhams County in Chamdo Municipality: Focusing on the existence of Larong sMar and the dialectal classification of Khams Tibetan]. Report of the Japanese Association for Tibetan Studies, 69 1, 1–12.Google Scholar
. (2023c). Songlin-go ni okeru Tibettokei syakuyoogo no seisitu ni tuite [Characteristics of Tibetic loanwords in the Songlin language]. Tokyo University Linguistic Papers, 45 1, e1–e41.Google Scholar
Suzuki, Hiroyuki, Fukazawa, Mika, Yokoyama, Akiko, and Endo, Mitsuaki (Eds.) (2022). Linguistic atlas of Asia and Africa I. Geolinguistic Society of Japan. DOI logo [Suzuki et al. 2022a]Google Scholar
Suzuki, Hiroyuki and Li, Chunmei. (2022). Vocabulary of the Chahualin dialect of sPomborgang Khams (Jiulong County). Asian and African Languages and Linguistics (AALL), 16 1, 261–289. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Suzuki, Hiroyuki and Lozong Lhamo. (2020). ‘Where’ as a negative marker in Khams Tibetan: A geolinguistic approach towards a grammaticalisation process. In Yoshiyuki Asahi (Ed.), Proceedings of Methods XVI: Papers from the Sixteenth International Conference on Methods in Dialectology, 2017 (pp. 289–296). Peter Lang. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2021). /ka-/ negative prefix in Choswateng Tibetan of Khams (Shangri-La, Yunnan). Language and Linguistics, 22 (4), 593–629. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Suzuki, Hiroyuki, Nakazawa, Kohei, and Endo, Mitsuaki (Eds.) (2023). Linguistic atlas of Asia and Africa II. Geolinguistic Society of Japan. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Suzuki, Hiroyuki and Sonam Wangmo. (2016). Lhagang Tibetan of Minyag Rabgang Khams: Vocabulary of two sociolinguistic varieties. Asian and African Languages and Linguistics (AALL), 10 1, 245–286. DOI logo
. (2018). Geolinguistic approach to the route of Tibetic loanwords in Lhagang Choyu. In Hiroyuki Suzuki and Mitsuaki Endo (Eds.), Papers from the Fourth International Conference of Asian Geolinguistics (pp. 115–126). Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. [URL]
. (2019). Migration history of Amdo-speaking pastoralists in Lhagang, Khams Minyag, based on narratives and linguistic evidence. In Bianca Horlemann, Ute Wallenböck, and Jarmila Ptáčková (Eds.), Mapping Amdo: Dynamics of power (pp. 203–222). Orientalní ústav.Google Scholar
. (2021). Hearsay evidential marking strategy in Lhagang Tibetan: A case study on folktales and legends. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 44 (2), 141–167. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Suzuki, Hiroyuki, Sonam Wangmo, and Tsering Samdrup. (2021a). Lamei, another dialect of Lamo (mDzogong, TAR): Vocabulary and sentence structure. In Yasuhiko Nagano and Takumi Ikeda (Eds.), Grammatical phenomena of Sino-Tibetan languages 4: Link languages and archetypes in Tibeto-Burman (pp. 25–69). Institute for Research in Humanities, Kyoto University. [URL]
. (2021b). A contrastive approach to the evidential system in Tibetic languages: Examining five varieties from Khams and Amdo. Gengo Kenkyu, 159 1, 69–101. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2022). Connecting Southern Khams in geolinguistics: A brief survey on ‘fish’ and ‘pig’ beyond Provinces. Studies in Geolinguistics, 2 1, 29–39. DOI logo [Suzuki et al. 2022b]Google Scholar
Suzuki, Hiroyuki, Tsering Samdrup, Niangwujia (Nyingbo-Gyal), Jixiancairang (Chaksham Tsering), and Sonam Wangmo (2019). /ɧ/ in Amdo Tibetan: Descriptive and historical approaches. Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan, 23 1, 76–82. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Suzuki, Hiroyuki and Yudron. (2020). Kamutibettogo Zhangna [nGramsna] hoogen no onsei kizyutu to goi [Phonetic description and vocabulary of Khams Tibetan nGramsna dialect]. Asian and African Languages and Linguistics (AALL), 14 1, 265–304. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Swadesh, Morris. (1971). The origin and diversification of language. Ed. post mortem by Joel Sherzer. Aldine.Google Scholar
Štolc, Jozef (Ed.) (1968). Atlas slovenského jazyka I: Vokalizmus a konsonantizmus [Atlas of the Slovak language I: Vocalism and consonantism]. Vydavatel’stvo slovenskej akadémie vied.Google Scholar
Tashi Nyima and Hiroyuki Suzuki. (2019). Newly recognised languages in Chamdo: Geography, culture, history, and language. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 42 (1), 38–82. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tournadre, Nicolas. (2005). L’aire linguistique tibétaine et ses divers dialectes. Lalies, 25 1, 7–56.Google Scholar
Tournadre, Nicolas and LaPolla, Randy J. (2014). Towards a new approach to evidentiality: Issues and directions for research. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 37 (2), 240–263. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tournadre, Nicolas and Suzuki, Hiroyuki. (2023). The Tibetic languages: An introduction to the family of languages derived from Old Tibetan. Villejuif: LACITO Publications. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Trubetzkoy, Nikolay Sergeevich. (1931). Phonologie und Sprachgeographie. Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague, 4 1, 228–234.Google Scholar
Tsering Samdrup and Suzuki, Hiroyuki. (2019). Humilifics in Mabzhi pastoralist speech of Amdo Tibetan. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 42 (2), 222–259. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tuomi, Tuomo, Hänninen, Anneli, Suhonen, Seppo, and Viitso, Tiit-Rein. (2007–2010). Atlas linguarum fennicarum/Itämerensuomalainen kielikartasto/Läänemeresoome keeleatlas/Ostseefinnischer Sprachatlas/Лингвистический атлас прибалтийско-финских языков. Vols. 1–31. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura.Google Scholar
Viereck, Wolfgang. (2006). The Atlas linguarum Europae: A brief presentation. Dialectologia et Geolinguistica, 14 1, 104–110. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wang, Shuangcheng. (2012). Zangyu Anduo fangyan yuyin yanjiu [Study on the sounds of the Amdo dialects of Tibetan]. Zhongxi Shuju.Google Scholar
Yagi, Kenji. (2021). Er yin de fenbu – Yi Zhongxibu fangyan wei zhu [Distribution of “er” with specific reference to the Middle West dialects]. In Hiroyuki Suzuki and Mitsuaki Endo (Eds.), Zhongguo yuyan dili yanjiu lunwenji (pp. 167–184). Reserach Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Yang, Shihong. (1995). Yi he liang jiang liuyu Zangyu fangyan huiyao [Materials of Tibetan dialects spoken along three rivers]. Gansu Minzu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Зайцевой, Н. Г. (2019). Лингвистический атлас вепсского языка [Linguistic atlas of the Vepsian language]. Нестор-История.Google Scholar
Zhang, Jichuan. (1993). Zangyu fangyan fenlei guanjian [Overview of Tibetan dialect classifications]. In Qingxia Dai (Ed.), Minzu yuwen wenji – Qingzhu Ma Xueliang xiansheng bashi shouchen wenji (pp. 297–309). Zhongyang Minzu Xueyuan Chubanshe.Google Scholar
. (2009). Zangyu cizu yanjiu: Gudai Zangzu ruhe fengfu fazhan tamen de cihui [Study on the Tibetan word family: How Tibetans in the ancient period enriched their lexicon]. Shehui Kexue Wenxian Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhou, Yang and Suzuki, Hiroyuki. (2022). Evidentiality in Selibu: A contact-induced emergence. Diachronica, 39 (2), 268–309. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zhu, Xiaonong. (2010). Yuyinxue [Phonetics]. Shangwu Yinshuguan.Google Scholar
Zou, Yuxia [gYu-’brug-mtsho] and Suzuki, Hiroyuki. (2022). Five folktales in Bragkhoglung Tibetan of Cone. Himalayan Linguistics, Archive 11 1, 1–85. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
ZYD2 = Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan yuyan yanjiusuo, Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan minzuxue yu renleixue yanjiusuo, and Xianggang chengshi daxue yuyan zixun kexue yanjiu zhongxin (2012). Zhongguo yuyan dituji (di 2 ban); Shaoshu minzu yuyan juan [Language atlas of China (2nd edition): Ethnic minorities’ languages]. Shangwu Yinshuguan.Google Scholar