Index
A
- Aborigines see Australian Aborigines
- Administrative Decisions Tribunal (NSW)
4
- Adult Migration English Program (AMEP)
17
- affirmative action
41, 43, 149
- Afghan camel drivers
13, 25, 110
- unwillingness to integrate (perception)
35
- ‘aliens’ (immigrant status)
16
- Allison, Lyn
107–108, 114, 133–134
- AMEP see Adult Migration English Program (AMEP)
- American civil rights movement
42–43
- Anglo-Australian – Lebanese conflict see Cronulla riots, Sydney 2005
- Anglo-Celtic Australians
6n5, 15–16
- Anglo-Saxon nature of Australia
6n5, 13, 14, 15, 18–19, 45, 102–104, 111, 114–115, 148, 159
see also immigration
-
Anti-Discrimination Act 1975
17
- proposed changes
147–149, 154, 159
- attempts to weaken legislation
70n55, 147–149, 154, 159
- and employer behaviour
45
-
Equality Act 2006 (UK)
44n38
- and Muslims
xxii, 3–5, 10–11, 31, 44–46
- and physical appearance
8–9
- protection against religious vilification
xxii, 3–4, 9–10, 44, 61
- and ‘race’ or ethnicity
17, 39
- analysis of discourses see Critical Discourse Analysis
- challenges for politicians
xxi–xxii, 160–161
- forms of
xix, xxi
39–42, 188–190
- role of text and talk
xxiv, 155–161
- strategies
156–157, 160–161, 185–190
-
see also anti-discrimination laws; racism
- anti-racist speeches see ‘Australian nation’: constructions in parliamentary speeches; parliamentary language; social actors in anti-racist discourses
- anti-terrorism laws
20–21, 148, 152–154
- Arabs/Arab Australians
79–80, 139, 159–160
see also Muslims in Australia
- argumentation strategies
85, 86, 194–195
- ‘Asian’ (term), meaning in Great Britain
43n37
- Asian countries, immigrants from
18–19
- assimilation policy
15–16, 101
- asylum seekers
xix, 3, 27, 112
- Australian citizens as British subjects
16
-
Australian Citizenship Act 2007
21–22
see also citizenship
- Australian Citizenship Bill 2005 debate
60–63, 97–100, 109, 111, 119–121
- Australian Citizenship Test Review Committee
23
- Australian Federation of Islamic Councils
53t, 56
- Australian laws
-
Anti-Discrimination Act 1975
17, 147–149, 154, 159
-
Australian Citizenship Act 2007
21–22
- depicted as superior
89–91
-
Immigration Restriction Act 1901 see White Australia Policy
-
Nationality and Citizenship Act 1948
15
-
see also anti-discrimination laws; Australian Citizenship Bill 2005 debate
- Australian Lawyer’s Alliance
152
- ‘Australian Muslims’ term used by politicians
56, 94, 99, 124, 138, 141, 145
see also Muslims in Australia
- Australian nation
- Anglo-Saxon nature of
6n5, 13, 14, 15–19, 45, 102–104, 111, 114–115, 148, 159
- Muslims’ contribution to
99, 110–112, 125–126, 141
- nationalism in Cronulla riots
7–8
- values see Australian values
-
see also citizenship; immigration; Muslims in Australia
- ‘Australian nation’: constructions in parliamentary speeches
xxiii, 85–87
- exclusive constructions
86–100, 113–114
- exclusive positioning of Muslims within the nation
86, 87t, 93–100, 113–114
- inclusive constructions
86, 87t, 100–104, 114
- inclusive positioning of Muslims within the nation
87t, 104–112, 114
-
see also parliamentary speeches
- Australian Parliament
183n92,184n93
- Australian population (numbers)
- Australian Security Intelligence Organisation
16, 55, 149
- Australian values
- and citizenship
21–25, 27–31, 60, 85–86
- depicted as superior
89–91
- and Muslim community
27–31, 87–89, 93–104, 149
- used to promote covert exclusion
97–100
B
- Bali bombings 2002
3, 8, 20,80n61
- Bartlett, Andrew
56–57, 75t, 105–107, 108, 114, 123
- Benbrika, Abu Bakar
29n29
- Beneton, Philippe
41, 189
- biological racism
xix, xx–xxi, 19, 33–34, 41–42, 46, 47, 68, 97
see also race theory; White Australia Policy
- ‘black’ (minority group), meaning of term in Great Britain
43
- black nationalism and socioeconomic disadvantage
42–43
- Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo
19
- Boyce, Sue
110, 140–141, 143
- Boycott Halal movement
150–152
- Brandis, George
67t, 69, 70, 147
- Britain see Great Britain
- British Commonwealth
64–65
- British immigrants to Australia
- British protected persons
16
- favoured status
13–16, 18
- British subjects
14, 16
see also Anglo-Saxon nature of Australia
- burkas
39n35, 105, 139
see also headscarves
- Burke, Anna
21, 62–63, 65, 68–69, 102–104, 121
C
- ‘Caucasian’ descriptor
6, 13
- CBMI see Runnymede Trust Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia
- CDA see Critical Discourse Analysis
- Chinese people in Australia
13
- Christians
88, 107–109, 138
- Irish Catholics in Australia
59, 60, 65
- ‘Citizens’ (social actors in anti-racist speeches)
118, 130–134, 158
- citizenship
- Australian citizens as British subjects
16
-
Australian Citizenship Act 2007
21–22
- Australian Citizenship Bill 2005 debate
60–63, 97–100, 109, 111, 119–121
- Australian values
21–25, 27–31, 60, 85–86, 93–104
- ‘earned citizenship’ concept
24
- Howard government provisions
20–23, 60–61
- inherited (ius sanguinis provisions)
23, 24–25
-
Nationality and Citizenship Act 1948
15
- naturalisation
18, 21, 22
- Pledge of Commitment
21, 23, 24, 25, 28, 30–31
- requirements
18, 20–23, 29–30, 97, 101
- tests
22–25, 29–31, 90, 98, 147
-
see also immigration policy; Muslims in Australia
- civil rights movement
42–43
- Cobb, John
21, 22, 119, 120
- colour-conscious anti-racisms
42–43
- Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia
35–36
- Commonwealth(British Commonwealth)
64–65
- Costello, Peter
28–29, 92, 106, 108,108n71
- covert racism
97–100, 111–112, 189–190
- Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), xxii
178–179
- application and methodology
180–182, 188, 196
- Discourse-Historical Approach
xxii, 86, 118, 190–196
-
see also methodology and data
- Cronulla riots, Sydney 2005
xx
xxiii
5–9
- conflation of identities
xxiii, 7–9, 10–11, 27, 54
- ‘dangerous Middle Eastern males’ perceptions
27
- Howard government rhetoric and
20, 53t, 56
- references in Parliament
53t, 56, 62t,73n57, 92, 123
- cultural essentialism
34–35, 43, 47, 113–114, 137–138
- cultural racism
xix, xxiii–xxiv, 15–16, 42
- culturalist racism
xix–xxii, 34–35, 39, 46
- Burke’s conceptualisation
68–69
- contrasted to biological racism
97
- essentialised/de-essentialised
113–114
- against Muslims
xx, xxi
34–35, 43–47, 58–60, 78–80, 112–115, 153–161, 185–186
see also Muslims in Australia
- in political discourse
xx
D
- data and methodology see methodology and data
- de Cillia, Rudolf
85–86, 127
- ‘Defenders’ (social actors in anti-racist speeches)
118, 127–130, 157
- Department of Immigration and Citizenship
20, 118
- Despoja, Natasha Stott see Stott Despoja, Natasha
- dictation test for immigrants
14–15
- differentialist anti-racism
40–41, 189
- discourse analysis see Critical Discourse Analysis
- discrimination
- racial see racial discrimination
- religious
9–10, 61
see also religious vilification
-
see also anti-discrimination laws; others/otherness; racism
- discriminatory anti-racism
41–42
- dog-whistle politics
20, 28–29, 57t, 59–60, 69, 73t, 74, 131–132, 134
- ‘double discrimination’
44–46, 112–113, 115
- dress
- Muslim women
34,39n35, 54, 79–80, 105–106, 126, 139–140, 153
-
see also headscarves; physical appearance
E
- Edwards, Graham
53–54, 65
- employer behaviour
- and anti-discrimination laws
45
- Equal Opportunity Commission (WA)
4–5
-
Equality Act 2006 (UK)
44n38
- equality laws see anti-discrimination laws
- essentialism see cultural essentialism
- ethnic pluralism see multiculturalism
- ethnicities
- ethno-religious groups
3–5
- Middle Eastern see Middle Eastern ethnicities
- Muslim ethnicities and nationalities
43–44
- European countries, policies on cultural diversity
39–41
- European immigrants to Australia
- undesirable European immigrants
14
-
see also White Australia Policy
- Exclusive Brethren
108–109
- extremist views
69, 70, 94–96
see also racism; terrorist acts
F
- Faulkner, John
58–60, 61, 65, 104–105, 128–129
- female equality see gender equality/inequality
- female genital mutilation
95, 96
- Ferguson, Laurie
72t, 75t, 119–121
- Ferguson, Martin
75t, 79, 80
- Fierravanti-Wells, Concetta
90–91, 92, 98–99,156n85
- Fifield, Mitchell
61, 76, 77t
- food certification
150–152, 154
- Four Corners (television program)
151
- France
- policies on cultural diversity
39, 40
- freedom of speech
147–149, 154
G
- gender equality/inequality
87t, 88, 91, 94–98, 103–106, 139
- genital mutilation
95, 96
- Great Britain
- British Commonwealth
64–65
- British immigrants to Australia
13–16, 18
- meaning of ‘Asian’ (term)
43n37
- Muslim community
34n31, 35–36, 40, 42–44
-
see also Anglo-Saxon nature of Australia
- group vs individual rights
44
H
- headscarves
34, 54, 79–80, 139, 153
- and racial vilification
79–80
- signifying oppressed women
54
- High Court of Australia composition
103n69
- hijab
79–80, 153
see also burkas; veils
- al-Hilali, Sheik
64, 81, 94–98, 102–104
- Howard, John
- instigates speeches on ‘racial discrimination’
76, 77t
- on Muslim community
27–28, 56, 95–96
- Howard government
- accused of discrimination
120–125, 130–134
- assimilation philosophy
101
- citizenship laws
20–23, 60–63, 97–98
- instigates speeches on ‘racial discrimination’
76, 77t, 118
- on Muslim opposition to Australian values
27–30
- rhetoric promoting racism
20, 53t, 56, 57t, 59, 60–61, 123–125
I
- identities
- conflation of
xxiii, 7–9, 10–11, 54, 80, 160
- ‘I’ll ride with you’ campaign
153
- Illegal Firearms Investigation Reward Scheme
152
- immigration
- from Asian countries
18–19
- Australians born overseas
18
- British immigrants
13–16, 18
- European immigrants (non-British)
14, 15, 16
- Muslim immigrants see Muslims in Australia
- immigration policy
- assimilation and integration
15–16
- citizenship requirements
15–16, 18, 20–23
- and racism
xx–xxii
see also racism in Australia
- White Australia Policy
13–15, 16, 17, 25
-
Immigration Restriction Act 1901 see White Australia Policy
- individual vs group rights
44
- integration
- demanded of immigrants
91–93
- intensification and mitigation strategies
196
- ‘Invisible Perpetrators’ (social actors in anti-racist speeches)
119–120
- Irish Catholics in Australia
59, 60, 65
- Islam
- fusion of civic and religious functions
31, 44
- re-racialisation of converts
34n31
- Sharia law
28–30, 105–106,108n71, 151–152
-
see also Muslims in Australia
- Islamic radicalism
56, 142, 143, 149
see also terrorist acts; ‘terrorist tendencies’ of Muslims (inferences)
- Islamophobia
35–37, 136, 150–152, 153–154, 188
-
ius sanguinis provisions for citizenship
23, 24–25
J
- Johnson, Michael
92, 94, 108
L
- language analysis see Critical Discourse Analysis
- language test for immigrants
14–15
- leaders see Muslim leaders
- ‘Leb’ (slang expression)
7n8
- Lebanese – Anglo-Australian conflict see Cronulla riots, Sydney 2005
- Lebanese-Australians
- discrimination against
27
- labelled as Muslim
xxiii, 7–9, 54, 80
- Lindt Café siege 2015
152–154
- London bombings 2005
8, 20
M
- ‘majority culture’ topos
102–105, 110–111
- males
- in conflicts see Cronulla riots, Sydney 2005
- ‘dangerous males’ perceptions
27, 132
- sexual racism against gay Asian males
58n48
-
Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race (Montagu 1942),
38
- Marshall, Gavin
61, 72t, 75t
- Mason, Brett
55–56, 95–96
- mental representations
93–94, 95, 96
- methodology and data
xii, 51–52
- categorisation of parliamentary speeches
188–190
- characteristics of political speeches
182–185
- constructing anti-racist discourses on Muslims
185–190
- Critical Discourse Analysis see Critical Discourse Analysis
- data analysis methods
190–196
- research questions
186–188
- Middle Eastern ethnicity
- appearance see physical appearance
- culturalist racism and
34–35
- ‘dangerous males’ perception
27
- labelled as Muslim
xxiii, 7–9, 10–11, 54, 80
- Middle Eastern males in conflicts see Cronulla riots, Sydney 2005
- migrants from Middle-Eastern countries
18
-
Migrant Service and Programs: Report of the Review of Post-Arrival Programs and Services to Migrants (Galbally Report)
17
- mitigation strategies
196
- multiculturalism
17–18, 40
- Howard government policy and rhetoric
19–20
- migrant settlement assistance
17
- practice in Australia
44–46
- ‘Muslim’ (term) used by politicians in conjunction with ‘race’ term
52–57, 82
- ‘Muslim Australians’ (term) used by politicians
77t, 79, 94, 138–139, 145, 159–160
see also Muslims in Australia
- Muslim clerics
29, 64, 81, 94–95, 97–98
- Muslim community
- concept of
94–97, 99–100, 123–124, 125, 126, 136–138, 145, 159–160
- Muslim leaders
94, 95, 96, 99, 124–126, 138, 141, 158, 159
- Muslim women
- dress
34,39n35, 54, 79–80, 105, 106, 126, 139–140, 153
- genital mutilation
95, 96
- Muslim girl’s letter to the Speaker
53–54, 65, 158
- term used by politicians
139–140
-
see also gender equality/inequality
- Muslimophobia
36–37
see also Islamophobia
- Muslims in Australia
- Afghan camel drivers
13, 25, 110
- appearance
34, 54–55
see also dress
- ‘Australian Muslims’ term
56, 94, 99, 124, 138, 141, 145
- contribution to Australia
99, 109–111, 125–126, 141
- culturalist racism against
xx, xxi
34–37, 43–47, 58–60, 78–80, 112–115, 153–161, 185–186
- depictions by/as social actors
118–146
- discrimination against
3, 7–9, 27, 44–47, 55–57, 79, 82, 112–115, 155–161
- ‘double discrimination’ against
43–46
- ethnicities
80, 43–44, 137
- financial circumstances
26–27
- history of
13, 25–26, 110–111
- integration of
91–93, 99–100
- mistaken identification of
4, 8
- multiple identities conflated
xxiii, 7–9, 10–11, 54, 80, 160
- ‘Muslim Australians’ term
77t, 79, 94, 138–139, 145, 159–160
see also Muslims in Australia
- ‘Muslim community’ concept
94, 96, 100, 123–124, 125, 126, 136–138, 145, 159–160
- nominations (names for)
135–140, 145–146, 159–160
- not considered an ‘ethno-religious group’
4–5, 10
- objectification
144–145, 146
- as ‘others’
xix–xx, xxiii
27–31
- population
25–26, 28, 98, 99
- portrayed as ‘unAustralian’
27–31, 34, 81–82, 95, 98, 101–102, 108, 112–113, 149
- portrayed as victims
78–80, 118, 121–127, 142, 144–145, 146, 160
- predications (descriptions)
140–143, 146, 159, 160
- ‘racial harmony’
75t, 76, 81–82
- recourse to anti-discrimination law
xxii, 3–5, 10–11
- religious freedom and secularism
107–110
- seen as ethnic /national group
145–146
- stereotypes (counter-discourses)
104–107, 141, 160
- vilification of
xx, xxi
3, 20, 27, 60–61, 78–80, 82
- Muslims in Britain
34n31, 35–36, 40, 42–44
- Muslims in Europe
36, 40, 54
N
- nation, concepts of see Australian nation
-
Nationality and Citizenship Act 1948
15
- naturalisation (citizenship)
18, 21, 22
see also citizenship
- Nettle, Kerry
67t, 69–70, 72t–73t, 73–74, 125–126, 131–132, 156
- new racism
xix, 42
see also cultural racism
- 9/11 events see September 11, 2001 (9/11) events
- nomination strategies
135–140, 145–146, 159–160, 191–193
- non-European migration to Australia
13, 14
see also White Australia Policy
O
- objectification of Muslims
144–145, 146
- conflation of identities
xxiii, 7–9, 10, 54, 80, 160
- fear/hatred of
xix, 38, 40–41, 46
- Muslims portrayed as dangerous ‘other’
xix–xx, xxiii
27–31
- ‘othering’ process
99–100, 156
- ‘tolerated others’
97–100
- Owens, Julie
126–127, 132
P
- parliamentary language
xxiv, 184–185
- and anti-racism
184–185, 189–190
- terms used by politicians see ‘Muslim’ (term); ‘Muslim Australians’ (term); ‘race’ (term); ‘racial’ (term); racial discrimination; racial vilification; racism
- parliamentary speeches
xx–xxii, xxii
- analysis method see Critical Discourse Analysis
- categorisation of
188–190
- characteristics of
182–185
- constructing anti-racist discourses on Muslims
185–190
- data
175–178
- data analysis methods
190–196
- research questions
186–188
- transcripts (Hansard)
182–183
-
see also ‘Australian nation’: constructions in parliamentary speeches; social actors in anti-racist discourses
- parliamentary system
183n92,184n93
- ‘Perpetrators’ (social actors in anti-racist speeches)
118–121, 157
- perspectivisation strategies
195–196
- and anti-discrimination laws
8–9
- and concept of ‘race’
34, 38
- of Muslims
34, 54–55, 156, 160
- ‘playing the race card’ expression
63
- political discourse see parliamentary language; parliamentary speeches
- political fallacies
194–195
- politics
- dog-whistle politics
20, 28–29, 57t, 59–60, 69, 73t, 74, 131–132, 134
-
see also Howard government; and names of individual politicians
- population see Australian population
- prayers in parliament
107–108
- predication strategies
86, 140–143, 146, 159, 160, 193–194
- pronouns, politicians’ use of
120–121, 127–130, 134–135, 158
- protected persons (immigrant status)
16
Q
- Quranic Society Islamic school, Camden NSW (proposed)
45
R
- ‘race’ (term)
38–39, 42
- definitions in Australian federal legislation
185–186
- not present in White Australia Policy legislation
14
- ‘race’ (term) used by politicians
52t, 62–66, 81, 82
- with ‘Muslims’ or ‘Islam’
52–57, 82
- with ‘religion’
57–61, 82
- race determinism
13, 15
see also White Australia Policy
- ‘The Race Question’ (UNESCO)
38
- race theory
13, 37–39, 41–42, 46–47
- ‘racial’ (term)
- used by Australian politicians
74–78, 81, 82
- racial discrimination
- and anti-discrimination laws
17, 39
- term used by politicians
75–78
-
see also anti-discrimination laws; racism
- racial harmony
75t, 76, 81–82
- racial vilification
- of Jews
72t, 76, 77t, 143
- of Muslims
3, 20, 27, 60–61, 78–80, 82
- vs religious vilification
61, 79, 80
- term used by politicians
74–80, 157
-
see also culturalist racism; religious vilification
- racism
- biological connotations
xx–xxi, 19, 33–34, 41–42, 68
- cultural see culturalist racism
- definitions
xxi, 33–35, 66
- definitions derived from context
67–70
- definitions in Australian federal legislation
185–186
- and immigration policy
xx–xxii, 17–18
- against Muslims see culturalist racism; Islamophobia
- perpetrators of (alleged) see ‘racist’ (term)
- and physical appearance
8–9, 11, 34
- role of text and talk
155–161
- term used by politicians
52t, 67–71, 82, 157
- racism in Australia
- backlash against multiculturalism
18–25
- definitions derived from context
67–70
- definitions in Australian federal legislation
185–186
- against Muslims see Muslims in Australia
- non-discriminatory immigration policy
17–18
- racist remarks in parliament
184–185, 189–190
see also parliamentary speeches
- ‘racist’ (term)
- used by politicians
52t, 71–74, 76, 82, 156, 157
- Reclaim Australia
151–152
- Reisigl, Martin
33, 85–86, 113, 127, 134, 143, 191, 193–195
- relativist (differentialist) anti-racism
40–41, 189
- religion
- of Lebanese-born people in Australia
8n12
- and racism
xx–xxii, 59, 60, 65
- term used by politicians with ‘race’ term
57–61, 82
-
see also Christians; Islam
- religious freedom
107–110
- religious symbols, bans on wearing
39n35
see also dress
- religious vilification
3–5
- protection against
xxii, 3–4, 9–10, 44, 61
- vs racial vilification
61, 79, 80
- Sen. Faulkner on
58–60, 61
-
see also racial vilification
- research see methodology and data
- ‘reverse racism’ accusations
131, 149
- rights
- citizenship: right or privilege
23
- civil rights movement
42–43
- freedom of religion
107–110
- freedom of speech
147–149, 154
- group vs individual rights
44
- riots see Cronulla riots, Sydney 2005
- Rudd government citizenship test
23–24
- Runnymede Trust Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, definition of Islamophobia
35–36, 188
S
- SBS (Special Broadcasting Service)
17
- scientific racism see race theory
- security politics
20–21, 27
- self-presentation
91–93, 112, 114
- September 11, 2001 (9/11) events
- Sheik Al-Hilali comments
64n51
- subsequent community hostility to Muslims
xx, xxi
3, 4, 8, 20, 27, 79–80, 155
- Sharia law
28–30, 105–107,108n71, 151–152
- social actors in anti-racist discourses
xxiv, 118–119, 157–158
- ‘Citizens’
118, 130–134, 158
- ‘Defenders’
118, 127–130, 157
- ‘Perpetrators’
118–121, 157
- ‘Victims’
118, 121–127, 157
- Special Broadcasting Service (SBS)
17
- Stephens, Ursula
72t, 75t, 76
- Stolcke, Verena
xxiii, 85
- Stott Despoja, Natasha
55
- subversive anti-racism
41
- Switzerland minaret ban
34–35, 151
T
- Taguieff, Pierre-André
41
- Tanner, Lindsay
60–61, 75t, 101–102, 103
- terms used by politicians see parliamentary language
- terrorist acts
3, 8, 20, 30–31,80n61, 122
see also anti-terrorism laws; Lindt Café siege 2015; September 11, 2001 (9/11) events
- ‘terrorist tendencies’ of Muslims (inferences)
29–30, 79, 160
- counter-discourses
104–106
- Thomson, Kelvin
108–109, 122–123
- Tilbury, Farida
27, 111–112
- topoi
194
- topos of the ‘majority culture’
102–105, 110–111
- topos of victimhood
145, 146
U
- ‘unAustralian’, Muslims portrayed as
27–31, 34, 81–82, 96, 98, 101–102, 108, 112–113, 149
see also Australian values
- United Kingdom see Great Britain
- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), ‘The Race Question’
38
- universalist anti-racism
39–41, 56, 188
V
- Vamvakinou, Maria
75t, 79–80, 124–125, 133
- van Dijk, Teun A.
xxii, 66, 73, 80, 86, 155, 176, 180, 182, 184, 190, 195
- van Leeuwen, Theo
137, 176, 192
- veils
54
see also headscarves
- ‘Victims’ (social actors in anti-racist speeches)
118, 121–127, 157
- Muslims portrayed as victims
78–80, 118, 121–127, 142, 144–145, 146, 160
- topos of victimhood
145, 146
- vilification, defined
3n2
see also discrimination; others/otherness; racial vilification; religious vilification
W
- ‘we’ pronoun used by politicians
120–121, 127–130, 134–135, 158
- Western culture
xxi, 4, 34–35, 41, 43–44, 189
see also culturalist racism; Muslims in Australia
- White Australia Policy
13–15, 16, 17, 18, 25
- Wodak, Ruth
33, 85–86, 127, 143, 191, 194–195
- ‘wog’ (slang expression)
7n8
- women
- clothing see dress; headscarves
- genital mutilation
95, 96
-
see also gender equality/inequality
X
- xenophobia
66, 150–152
see also Islamophobia; racism