Cover not available
Article published In:
EUROSLA Yearbook: Volume 16 (2016)
Edited by Sarah Ann Liszka, Pascale Leclercq, Marion Tellier and Georges Daniel Véronique
[EUROSLA Yearbook 16] 2016
► pp. 179–210

Testing aptitude

Investigating Meara’s (2005) LLAMA tests

 | Swansea University, UK
 | Swansea University, UK
 | Swansea University, UK
 | Swansea University, UK
 | Swansea University, UK
 | Swansea University, UK
 | Swansea University, UK
Meara (2005) developed the LLAMA tests as a free, language-neutral, user-friendly suite of aptitude tests incorporating four separate elements: vocabulary learning (LLAMA_B), phonetic (implicit) memory (LLAMA_D), sound-symbol correspondence (LLAMA_E) and grammatical inferencing (LLAMA_F) based on the standardised MLAT tests (Carroll & Sapon 1959). Recently, they have become increasingly popular in L2 acquisition research (Grañena & Long 2013b). However, Meara has expressed concern about the wide use of these tests without validity testing (cf. Grañena 2013a). To this end, we investigated several areas relating to the LLAMA tests, i.e. (1) the role of gender in LLAMA test performance; (2) language neutrality; (3) the role of age; (4) the role of formal education qualifications; (5) the effect of playing logic puzzles on LLAMA scores and (6) the effect of changing the test timings to scores. 229 participants from a range of language backgrounds, aged 10–75 with various education levels, typologically distinct L1s, and varying levels of multilingualism were tested. A subset of participants was also tested with varying timings for the tests. The results showed that the LLAMA tests are gender and language neutral. The younger learners (10–11s) performed significantly worse than the adults in the sound/symbol correspondence task (LLAMA_E). Formal education qualifications show a significant advantage in 3 of the LLAMA subcomponents (B, E, F) but not the implicit measure (LLAMA_D). Playing logic puzzles did not improve LLAMA test scores. The timings appear to be optimal apart from LLAMA_F, which could be shortened. We suggest that the LLAMA aptitude tests are not significantly affected by these factors although researchers using these tests should be aware of the possible impact of education level on some components of the tests.
Published online: 10 August 2016
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/eurosla.16.07rog
References (68)
Abrahamsson, N. & Hyltenstam, K. 2008. The robustness of aptitude effects in near-native second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30(4): 481–509. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Birdsong, D. & Molis, M. 2001. On the evidence for maturational constraints in second-language acquisition. Journal of memory and language, 44(2): 235–249. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Carlsson, M.O., Zou, K.H., Yu, C.R., Liu, K. & Sun, F.W. 2014. A comparison of nonparametric and parametric methods to adjust for baseline measures. Contemporary clinical trials, 37(2): 225–233. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Carroll, J.B. 1981. Twenty-five years of research on foreign language aptitude. Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude, 83–118.Google Scholar
. 1990. Cognitive abilities in foreign language aptitude: Then and now. Language aptitude reconsidered, 11–29.Google Scholar
Carroll, J.B. & Sapon, S.M. 1959. Modern language aptitude test. San Antonio, Texas: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
. 1967. Modern Language Aptitude Test-Elementary Manual. San Antonio, Texas: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Ceci, S.J. 1991. How Much Does Schooling Influence General Intelligence and Its Cognitive Components? A Reassessment of the Evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27(5): 703–722. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
De Bot, K. 2013. Circadian rhythms and second language development. International Journal of Bilingualism, online access.Google Scholar
DeKeyser, R. 2000. The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in second language acquisition, 22(04): 499–533. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2008. Implicit and Explicit Learning. In The handbook of second language acquisition. (Blackwell handbooks in linguistics) C. Doughty & M. Long (eds.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z. 2010. “The relationship between language aptitude and language learning motivation: Individual differences from a dynamic systems perspective”. In Continuum companion to second language acquisition. E. Macaro (ed.), 247–267. London: Continuum.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E. (eds.). 2009. Motivation, language identity and the L2 self. Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Eisenstein, M. 1980. Childhood bilingualism and adult language learning aptitude. Revue Internationale De Psychologie Appliquee/International Review of Applied Psychology, 29(1–2): 159–172. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Flege, J.E., Yeni-Komshian, G.H. & Liu, S. 1999. Age constraints on second-language acquisition. Journal of memory and language, 41(1): 78–104. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gholamain, M. & Geva, E. 1999. Orthographic and Cognitive Factors in the Concurrent Development of Basic Reading Skills in English and Persian. Language Learning, 49(2): 183–217. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Grañena, G. 2013a. “Cognitive aptitudes for second language learning and the LLAMA Language Aptitude Test.” In Sensitive periods, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment, G. Grañena, & M. Long (eds.), 105–129. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2013b. Individual differences in sequence learning ability and second language acquisition in early childhood and adulthood. Language Learning, 63(4): 665–703. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Grañena, G. & Long, M. 2013a. Age of onset, length of residence, language aptitude, and ultimate l2 attainment in three linguistic domains. Second Language Research, 29(3): 311–343. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (eds.). 2013b. Sensitive periods, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment (Vol. 351). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Green, D. & Meara, P. 1987. The effects of script on visual search. Second Language Research, 3(2): 102–113. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Grigorenko, E.L., Sternberg, R.J. & Ehrman, M.E. 2000. A Theory‐Based Approach to the Measurement of Foreign Language Learning Ability: The Canal‐F Theory and Test. The Modern Language Journal, 84(3): 390–405. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hamada, M. & Koda, K. 2008. Influence of first language orthographic experience on second language decoding and word learning. Language Learning, 58(1): 1–31. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Johnson, J.S. & Newport, E.L. 1989. Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive psychology, 21(1): 60–99. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kormos, J. 2013. New conceptualizations of language aptitude in second language attainment. Sensitive periods, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment, 35, 131. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Krashen, S.D. 1981. Aptitude and attitude in relation to second language acquisition and learning. Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude, 155–175.Google Scholar
Larson-Hall, J. & Dewey, D. 2012. An examination of the effects of input, aptitude, and motivation on the language proficiency of missionaries learning Japanese as a second language. Second language acquisition abroad: The LDS missionary experience, 45, 51. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lenneberg, E.H. 1967. Biological foundations of language (Vol. 681). New York: Wiley. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lundell, F.F. & Sandgren, M. 2013. High-level proficiency in late L2 acquisition Relationships between collocational production. In Sensitive periods, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment. G. Grañena & M. Long (eds.). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Manning, M. 1995. Borland’s official no-nonsense guide to Delphi 2. Indianapolis: Sams.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, B. 1990. The relationship between first and second languages: Language proficiency and language aptitude. The development of second language proficiency, 158–178. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Meara, P. 2005. LLAMA language aptitude tests: The manual. Swansea: Lognostics.Google Scholar
. 2013. Imaginary Words. In The encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. C. Chapelle (ed.). Chichester: WileyGoogle Scholar
Muñóz, C. 2014. The Association Between Aptitude Components and Language Skills in Young Learners. In Essential Topics in Applied Linguistics and Multilingualism.Studies in Honor of David Singleton. M. Pawlak & L. Aronin (eds.), 51–68. London: Springer International Publishing. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C. & Singleton, D. 2011. A critical review of age-related research on L2 ultimate attainment. Language Teaching, 44(01): 1–35. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nation, R. & McLaughlin, B. 1986. Novices and experts: An information processing approach to the “good language learner” problem. Applied Psycholinguistics, 7(01): 41–55. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nayak, N., Hansen, N., Krueger, N. & McLaughlin, B. 1990. Language‐Learning Strategies in Monolingual and Multilingual Adults. Language Learning, 40(2): 221–244. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Opitz, C. 2011. First language attrition and second language acquisition in a second language environment (Doctoral dissertation, Trinity College Dublin.).Google Scholar
Ortega, L. 2009. Foreign Language Aptitude. In Understanding second language acquisition. London: Hodder Education, 145–166.Google Scholar
Oxford, R. 1990. Language Learning Strategies. What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & HeinleGoogle Scholar
Parry, T.S. & Stansfield, C.W. 1990. Language aptitude reconsidered (Vol. 741). New York: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Partchev, I., De Boeck, P. & Steyer, R. 2013. How much power and speed is measured in this test? Assessment, 20(2): 242–252. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Petersen, C.R. & Al-Haik, A.R. 1976. The Development of the Defense Language Aptitude Battery (DLAB). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 36(2): 369–380. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pimsleur, P. 1966. Pimsleur language aptitude battery. Harcourt, Brace & World.Google Scholar
Piske, T., MacKay, I.R. & Flege, J.E. 2001. Factors affecting degree of foreign accent in an L2: A review. Journal of phonetics, 29(2): 191–215. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Quade, D. 1967. Rank analysis of covariance. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 62(320): 1187–1200. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Robinson, P. 2001. Individual differences, cognitive abilities, aptitude complexes and learning conditions in second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 17(4): 368–392. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2013. Aptitude in Second Language Acquisition. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. C. Chapelle (ed.). Chichester: WileyGoogle Scholar
Rogers, V. 2015. Testing the LLAMA aptitude tests: an overview. Presented at Language Research Centre seminar series , Swansea University. Available at: [URL]
Rogers, V., Barnett-Legh, T., Curry, C. & Davey, E. 2015. Validating the LLAMA aptitude tests. Presented at EUROSLA 2015 , York. Available at: [URL]
Sáfár, A. & Kormos, J. 2008. Revisiting problems with foreign language aptitude. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 46(2): 113–136. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Salthouse, T.A. 2009. When does age-related cognitive decline begin? Neurobiology of aging, 30(4): 507–514. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sawyer, M. 1992. Language Aptitude and Language Experience: Are They Related? The language programs of the International University of Japan: working papers, 31, 27–45.Google Scholar
Service, E. & Kohonen, V. 1995. Is the relation between phonological memory and foreign language learning accounted for by vocabulary acquisition? Applied Psycholinguistics, 16(02): 155–172. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Service, E. 1992. Phonology, working memory, and foreign-language learning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 45(1): 21–50. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Skehan, P. 2002. Theorising and updating aptitude. Individual differences and instructed language learning, 21: 69–94. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Smeds, H. 2012. Perceptual compensation in blind second language (L2) learners Paper presented at the Nordic conference for bilingualism, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. Retrieved from: [URL]
Snow, R.E. 1992. Aptitude theory: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Educational psychologist, 27(1): 5–32. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R.L., Ganschow, L., Fluharty, K. & Little, S. 1995. An exploratory study on the effects of Latin on the native language skills and foreign language aptitude of students with and without learning disabilities. Classical Journal, 165–184.Google Scholar
Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. 2001. Aptitude for learning a foreign language. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 211, 90–111. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Speciale, G., Ellis, N.C. & Bywater, T. 2004. Phonological sequence learning and short-term store capacity determine second language vocabulary acquisition. Applied psycholinguistics, 25(02): 293–321. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R.J. 2002. “The theory of successful intelligence and its implications of language aptitude testing”. In Individual differences and instructed language learning. P. Robinson (ed.), 13–44. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Thompson, A.S. 2013. The interface of language aptitude and multilingualism: Reconsidering the bilingual/multilingual dichotomy. The Modern Language Journal, 971: 685–701. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wesche, M. 1981. Language aptitude measures in streaming, matching students with methods, and diagnosis of learning problems. In Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude. K. Diller, (ed.), 119–139.Google Scholar
Wild, C.L., Durso, R. & Rubin, D.B. 1982. Effect of increased test‐taking time on test scores by ethnic group, years out of school, and sex. Journal of Educational Measurement, 19(1): 19–28. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wong, W. & Pyun, D.O. 2012. The Effects of Sentence Writing on Second Language French and Korean Lexical Retention. Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes, 68(2): 164–189. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Xiang, H., Dediu, D., Roberts, L., Oort, E.V., Norris, D.G. & Hagoort, P. 2012. The structural connectivity underpinning language aptitude, working memory, and IQ in the perisylvian language network. Language learning,62 (s2): 110–130. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Yilmaz, Y. 2013. Relative effects of explicit and implicit feedback: The role of working memory capacity and language analytic ability. Applied Linguistics, 34(3): 344–368. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cited by (16)

Cited by 16 other publications

Teimouri, Yasser, Somayeh Tahmouresi & Farhad Tabandeh
2024. The interplay of mindsets, aptitude, grit, and language achievement: What role does gender play?. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 46:3 ► pp. 869 ff. DOI logo
Roehr-Brackin, Karen, Vanessa Loaiza & Renato Pavlekovic
2023. Language learning aptitude in older adults. Journal of the European Second Language Association 7:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Suárez, Maria-del-Mar & Charles W. Stansfield
2023. Young learners’ bilingual status and cognitive development in foreign language aptitude testing. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 174:2 ► pp. 291 ff. DOI logo
Roehr-Brackin, Karen
2022. Investigating explicit and implicit L2 knowledge and learning: Replications of Erlam (2005) and Roehr-Brackin and Tellier (2019). Language Teaching 55:2 ► pp. 271 ff. DOI logo
Biedroń, Adriana & Mauricio Véliz-Campos
2021. Trainability of Foreign Language Aptitudes in Children. In Facing Diversity in Child Foreign Language Education [Second Language Learning and Teaching, ], ► pp. 39 ff. DOI logo
Chalmers, James, Susana A. Eisenchlas, Andrew Munro & Andrea C. Schalley
2021. Sixty years of second language aptitude research: A systematic quantitative literature review. Language and Linguistics Compass 15:11 DOI logo
Mujtaba, Syed Muhammad, Atiyeh Kamyabi Gol & Rakesh Parkash
2021. A study on the relationship between language aptitude, vocabulary size, working memory, and L2 writing accuracy. Foreign Language Annals 54:4 ► pp. 1059 ff. DOI logo
Novén, Mikael, Hampus Olsson, Gunther Helms, Merle Horne, Markus Nilsson & Mikael Roll
2021. Cortical and white matter correlates of language‐learning aptitudes. Human Brain Mapping 42:15 ► pp. 5037 ff. DOI logo
Roehr-Brackin, Karen, Gabriela Adela Gánem-Gutiérrez, Lexa Olivera-Smith & María Teresa Torres-Marín
2021. Are individual differences in cognitive abilities and stylistic preferences related to multilingual adults’ performance in explicit learning conditions?. Language Awareness 30:4 ► pp. 391 ff. DOI logo
Bokander, Lars & Emanuel Bylund
2020. Probing the Internal Validity of the LLAMA Language Aptitude Tests. Language Learning 70:1 ► pp. 11 ff. DOI logo
Costley, Tracey, Christina Gkonou, Florence Myles, Karen Roehr-Brackin & Angela Tellier
2020. Multilingual and monolingual children in the primary-level language classroom: individual differences and perceptions of foreign language learning. The Language Learning Journal 48:5 ► pp. 643 ff. DOI logo
Granena, Gisela
2019. COGNITIVE APTITUDES AND L2 SPEAKING PROFICIENCY. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 41:2 ► pp. 313 ff. DOI logo
Turker, Sabrina, Susanne Maria Reiterer, Peter Schneider & Annemarie Seither-Preisler
2019. Auditory Cortex Morphology Predicts Language Learning Potential in Children and Teenagers. Frontiers in Neuroscience 13 DOI logo
Turker, Sabrina, Susanne M. Reiterer, Peter Schneider & Annemarie Seither-Preisler
2018. The Neuroanatomical Correlates of Foreign Language Aptitude. In Exploring Language Aptitude: Views from Psychology, the Language Sciences, and Cognitive Neuroscience [English Language Education, 16], ► pp. 119 ff. DOI logo
Rogers, Vivienne, Paul Meara, Thomas Barnett-Legh, Clare Curry & Emma Davie
2017. Examining the LLAMA aptitude tests. Journal of the European Second Language Association 1:1 ► pp. 49 ff. DOI logo
Turker, Sabrina, Susanne M. Reiterer, Annemarie Seither-Preisler & Peter Schneider
2017. “When Music Speaks”: Auditory Cortex Morphology as a Neuroanatomical Marker of Language Aptitude and Musicality. Frontiers in Psychology 8 DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 4 january 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.