The Northern Subject Rule in the Irish diaspora
Subject-verb agreement among first- and second-generation emigrants to New Zealand
This article examines the Northern Subject Rule in the Irish diaspora, studying letters from two generations of an Ulster emigrant family in 19th-century New Zealand. The study shows that the concord pattern frequently used by the parent generation almost completely disappeared in the language of their New Zealand-born children. The results suggest that the children skipped the stage of “extreme variability” that is claimed to be characteristic of the language of the first colony-born immigrants in the new-dialect formation framework (Trudgill 2004). This study aims to contribute to work on early New Zealand English grammar (e.g. Hundt 2012, 2015a, 2015b; Hundt and Szmrecsanyi 2012) and it adds new insights into the formation of New Zealand English. It, furthermore, contributes to research on dialect contact between Irish English and other colonial varieties of English as well as new-dialect formation.
Article outline
- 1.Introduction
- 1.1New-dialect formation
- 1.2Subject-verb agreement in World Englishes
- 2.The situation in New Zealand English
- 2.1The Irish in Canterbury
- 2.2Subject-verb agreement in Hay and Schreier (2004)
- 3.Methodology
- 4.Plural is/was in Ulster letters
- 4.1Use of plural is/was in the language of the original Ulster immigrants
- 4.2Use of plural is/was in the language of second-generation New Zealand-born immigrants
- 5.Conclusion
- Acknowledgements
- Notes
-
Sources
-
References
References
Sources
Bassett, John, Anette McKee, Bertie Forsythe, and Cecil Hawthorne
2009 The McIlrath Letters. A Family History in Letters from New Zealand to Ireland 1860–1915. The Killyleagh Branch of the North of Ireland Family History Society.
Amador-Moreno, Carolina P.
2010 “
Writing from the Margins: Donegal English Invented/Imagined”. In
Robert McColl Millar, ed.
Marginal Dialects: Scotland, Ireland and beyond. Special Issue of Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ireland 11: 52–69.
Bauer, Laurie
1988 “
Number Agreement with Collective Nouns in New Zealand English”.
Australian Journal of Linguistics 81: 247–259.
Bauer, Laurie
2008 “
A Question of Identity: A Response to Peter Trudgill”.
Language in Society 371: 270–273.
Bonness, Dania J.
2015 “
‘How is her Eyes [?] are they Still Closed [?]’ Subject–Verb Agreement in Nineteenth-Century Irish English”.
Token: A Journal of English Linguistics 41: 5–36.
Britain, David
2002 “
Diffusion, Levelling, Simplification and Reallocation in Past Tense BE in the English Fens”.
Journal of Sociolinguistics 61: 16–43.
Britain, David, and Andrea Sudbury
2002 “
There’s Sheep and there’s Penguins: Convergence, ‘Drift’ and ‘Slant’ in New Zealand and Falkland Island English”. In
Mari C. Jones, and
Edith Esch, eds.
Language Change: The Interplay of Internal, External and Extra-Linguistic Factors. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 209–240.
Buchstaller, Isabelle, Karen Corrigan, Anders Holmberg, Patrick Honeybone, and Warren Maguire
2013 “
T-to-R and the Northern Subject Rule: Questionnaire-Based Spatial, Social and Structural Linguistics”.
English Language and Linguistics 171: 85–128.
Campbell, Arnold E.
1941 Educating New Zealand. Wellington: Department of Internal Affairs.
Cheshire, Jenny, and Sue Fox
2009 “
Was/Were Variation: A Perspective from London”.
Language Variation and Change 211: 1–38.
Childs, Claire
2012 “
Verbal -s and the Northern Subject Rule: Spatial Variation in Linguistic and Sociolinguistic Constraints”. In
Xosé Alfonso Álvarez Pérez,
Ernestina Carrilho, and
Catarina Magro, eds.
Proceedings of International Symposium on Limits and Areas in Dialectology (LimiAr). Lisbon 2011. Lisboa: Centro de Linguística da Universidade de Lisboa, 319–344.
Clarke, Sandra
1997 “
English Verbal -s Revisited: The Evidence from Newfoundland”.
American Speech 721: 227–259.
Clarke, Sandra
2015 “
The Continuing Story of Verbal -s. Revisiting the Northern Subject Rule as a Diagnostic of Historical Relationship”. In
Rena Torres Cacoullos,
Nathalie Dion, and
André Lapierre, eds.
Linguistic Variation. Confronting Fact and Theory. Routledge, 75–95.
Coupland, Nikolas
2008 “
The Delicate Constitution of Identity in Face-to-Face Accommodation: A Response to Peter Trudgill”.
Language in Society 371: 267–270.
Corrigan, Karen P.
1997 “
The Syntax of South Armagh English in its Socio-Historical Perspective”. Ph.D. Dissertation, National University of Ireland at University College, Dublin.
de Haas, Nynke K.
2008 “
The Origins of the Northern Subject Rule”. In
Maurizio Gotti,
Marina Dossena, and
Richard Dury, eds.
English Historical Linguistics 2006: Selected Papers from the Fourteenth International Conference (ICEHL 14). Vol. 31. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 111–130.
Dunne, Claire
1991 “
‘Gaelic’ is Irish for ‘Irish’”.
Ethnos. The Monthly Journal of the Ethnic Affairs Comission of NSW 791: 11.
Dwyer, Sarah, and Lyndon Fraser
2006 “
Towards a History of Ulster Migrants in Nineteenth Century Canterbury”. In
Brad Patterson, ed.
Ulster-New Zealand Migration and Cultural Transfers. Portland: Four Courts Press, 115–130.
Dwyer, Sarah, and Lydon Fraser
2009 “
When Rolling Seas Shall no More Divide us”.
New Zealand Journal of History 431: 182–197.
Eisikovits, Edita
1991 “
Variation in Subject-Verb Agreement in Inner Sydney English”. In
Jenny Cheshire, ed.
English Around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 235–256.
Feagin, Crawford
1979 Variation and Change in Alabama English. Georgetown: Georgetown University Press.
Filppula, Markku
1999 The Grammar of Irish English: Language in Hibernian Style. London: Routledge.
Fritz, Clemens W.A.
2007 From English in Australia to Australian English 1788–1900. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Gardiner, Shayna
2012 “
Singular Concord in Ottawa Valley English”.
Strathy Student Working Papers on Canadian English 2012.
[URL] (accessed November 03, 2015).
Gordon, Elizabeth, Lyle Campbell, Jennifer Hay, Margaret Maclagan, Andrea Sudbury, and Peter Trudgill
2004 New Zealand English: Its Origins and Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gordon, Elizabeth, and Peter Trudgill
2004 “
English Input to New Zealand”. In
Raymond Hickey, ed.
Legacies of Colonial Englishes. Studies in Transported Dialects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 440–455.
Hay, Jennifer, and Daniel Schreier
2004 “
Reversing the Trajectory of Language Change: Subject-Verb Agreement with be in New Zealand English”.
Language Variation and Change 161: 209–235.
Hickey, Raymond
2003 “
How Do Dialects Get the Features they Have? On the Process of New Dialect Formation”. In
Raymond Hickey, ed.
Motives for Language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 213–239.
Hickey, Raymond
2007 Irish English. History and Present-Day Forms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Holmes, Janet, and Paul Kerswill
2008 “
Contact is Not Enough: A Response to Peter Trudgill”.
Language in Society 371: 273–277.
Hundt, Marianne
2012 “
Towards a Corpus of New Zealand English: News from Erewhon?”
Te Reo: Journal of the Linguistic Society of New Zealand 551: 51–74.
Hundt, Marianne
2015a “
Do-Support in Early New Zealand and Australian English”. In
Peter Collins, ed.
Grammatical Change in English World-Wide. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 65–86.
Hundt, Marianne
2015b “
Heterogeneity vs. Homogeneity”. In
Anita Auer,
Richard J. Watts, and
Daniel Schreier, eds.
Letter Writing and Language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 72–100.
Hundt, Marianne, and Benedikt Szmrecsanyi
Ihalainen, Ossi
1994 “
The Dialects of England since 1776”. In
Robert W. Burchfield, ed.
The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. V:
English in Britain and Overseas. Origins and Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 197–274.
Kallen, Jeffrey
1991 “
Intra-Language Transfer and Plural Subject Concord in Irish and Appalachian English”.
Teanga 111: 20–34.
Kautzsch, Alexander
2000 “
Liberian Letters and Virginian Narratives: Negation Patterns in Two New Sources of Earlier African American English”.
American Speech 751: 34–53.
McCafferty, Kevin
2003 “
The Northern Subject Rule in Ulster: How Scots, how English?”.
Language Variation and Change 151: 105–139.
McCafferty, Kevin
2005 “
William Carleton between Irish and English: Using Literary Dialect to Study Language Contact and Change”.
Language and Literature 141: 339–362.
McCarthy, Angela
2010 “
Language and Accent Among Irish Migrants in New Zealand”.
Australasian Journal of Irish Studies 101: 37–54.
McIntosh, Angus
1983 “
Present Indicative Plural Forms in the Later Middle English of the North Midlands”. In
Douglas Gray, and
Eric Gerald Stanley, eds.
Middle English Studies: Presented to Norman Davis in Honour of his Seventieth Birthday. Oxford: Clarendon, 235–254.
Meechan, Marjory, and Michele Foley
1994 “
On Resolving Disagreement: Linguistic Theory and Variation – There’s Bridges”.
Language Variation and Change 61: 63–85.
Mein Smith, Philippa
2011 A Concise History of New Zealand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Miller, Kerby A.
1985 Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North America. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Milroy, James
1981 Regional Accents of English: Belfast. Belfast: Blackstaff.
Montgomery, Michael B.
1994 “
The Evolution of Verb Concord in Scots”. In
Alexander Fenton, and
Donald A. MacDonald, eds.
Studies in Scots and Gaelic. Edinburgh: Canongate Academic, 81–95.
Montgomery, Michael B.
1995 “
The Linguistic Value of Ulster Emigrant Letters”.
Ulster Folklife 411: 26–41.
Montgomery, Michael B.
1996 “
Was Colonial American English a Koine?”. In
Juhani Klemola,
Merja Kytö, and
Matti Rissanen, eds.
Speech Past and Present. Studies in English Dialectology in Memory of Ossi Ihalainen. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 213–235.
Montgomery, Michael B.
1997a “
Making Transatlantic Connections between Varieties of English. The Case of Plural Verbal -s
”.
Journal of English Linguistics 251: 122–141.
Montgomery, Michael B. and Philip Robinson
1996 “
Ulster English as Janus: Language Contact Across the Irish Sea and Across the North Atlantic”. In
Per Sture Ureland, and
Iain Clarkson, eds.
Language Contact Across the North Atlantic. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 411–426.
Mufwene, Salikoko Sangol
2001 Ecology of Language Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mufwene, Salikoko Sangol
2008 “
Colonization, Population Contacts, and the Emergence of New Language Varieties: A Response to Peter Trudgill”.
Language in Society 371: 254–258.
Myklestad, Anne Sætersdal
2015 “
‘We Have Had Very Pearlous Times and Lost Much but through Devine Providance is Blessed with Sufficent of the Nessarys of Life’: A Study of Subject–Verb Concord in 18th-Century Ulster”. MA Dissertation: University of Bergen.
[URL] (accessed September 11, 2016).
NZ History. New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage
, updated
December 08 2014 <
[URL] (accessed November 17, 2015).
Patterson, Murray
1998 In
Sight of the Lake and Sound of the Sea. Christchurch: M. Patterson.
Phillips, Jock
2013 “
Story: History of Immigration. – Early Years”,
Te Ara. T – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 21-Aug-2013
[URL] (accessed August 21, 2015).
Phillips, Jock, and Terry Hearn
2008 Settlers. New Zealand Immigrants from England, Ireland & Scotland 1800–1945. Auckland: Auckland University Press.
Pickens, Keith
1977 “
The Origins of the Population of Nineteenth Century Canterbury”.
New Zealand Geographer 331: 69–75.
Pietsch, Lukas
2005a Variable Grammars: Verbal Agreement in Northern Dialects of English. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag.
Pietsch, Lukas
2005b “
Some Do and Some Doesn’t: Verbal Concord Variation in the North of the British Isles”. In
Bernd Kortmann,
Tanja Herrmann,
Lukas Pietsch and
Susanne Wagner, eds.
Comparative Grammar of English Dialects: Agreement, Gender, Relative Clauses. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 125–209.
Pietsch, Lukas
2012 “
Verbal Concord”. In
Raymond Hickey, ed.
Topics in English Linguistics: Areal Features of the Anglophone World. München: Walter de Gruyter, 355–378.
Price, Charles A.
1987 “
Immigration and Ethnic Origin”. In
Wray Vamplew, ed.
Australian Historical Statistics. New South Wales: Fairfax, Syme & Weldon Associates, 2–22.
Rowe, James W., and Margaret A. Rowe
1967 New Zealand. London: Ernest Benn Limited.
Schneider, Edgar W.
2003 “
The Dynamics of New Englishes: From Identity Construction to Dialect Birth”.
Language 791: 233–281.
Schneider, Edgar W.
2007 Postcolonial English. Varieties Around the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schreier, Daniel
2002 “
Past Be in Tristan Da Cunha: The Rise and Fall of Categoricality in Language Change”.
American Speech 771: 70–99.
Scott, Mike
2012 WordSmith Tools Version 6. Liverpool: Lexical Analysis Software.
Starks, Donna, and Laura Thompson
2009 “
Agreement Patterns in Existential Constructions in the New Zealand Niuean Community”.
World Englishes 281: 319–335.
Tagliamonte, Sali
1998 “
Was/Were Variation across the Generations: View from the City of York”.
Language Variation and Change 101: 153–191.
Taylor, Brian
2000 “
Syntactic, Lexical and Other Transfers from Celtic in (Australian) English”. In
Geraint Evans,
Bernard Martin, and
Jonathan M. Wooding, eds.
Origins and Revivals. Proceedings of The First Australian Conference of Celtic Studies. Sydney: Centre for Celtic Studies, University of Sydney, 45–68.
Trudgill, Peter
2004 New-Dialect Formation: The Inevitability of Colonial Englishes. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Trudgill, Peter
2008 “
Colonial Dialect Contact in the History of European Languages: On the Irrelevance of Identity to New-Dialect Formation”.
Language in Society 371: 241–254.
Trudgill, Peter, Elisabeth Gordon, Gilliam Lewis, and Margaret Maclagan
2000 “
Determinism in New-Dialect Formation and the Genesis of New Zealand English”.
Journal of Linguistics 361: 299–318.
Tuten, Donald N.
2008 “
Identity Formation and Accommodation: Sequential and Simultaneous Relations”.
Language in Society 371: 259–262.
Visser, Frederikus Th
1963 An Historical Syntax of the English Language. Leiden: Brill.
Wawra, Daniela
2012 “
New Zealand English: A History of Hybridization”. In
Philip Wolfgang Stockhammer, ed.
Conceptualizing Cultural Hybridization. A Transdisciplinary Approach. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 159–172.
Wolfram, Walt, Kirk Hazen, and Jennifer Ruff Tamburro
1997 “
Isolation within Isolation: A Solitary Century of African-American Vernacular English”.
Journal of Sociolinguistics 11: 7–38.
Wolfram, Walt, and Natalie Schilling-Estes
2006 American English: Dialects and Variation (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
Cited by
Cited by 3 other publications
Ávila-Ledesma, Nancy E. & Carolina P. Amador-Moreno
2023.
‘The seas was like mountains’: intra-writer variation and social mobility in Irish emigrant letters.
Journal of Historical Sociolinguistics 9:2
► pp. 243 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 29 april 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.