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Article published In:
Recent Advances in Automatic Readability Assessment and Text Simplification
Edited by Thomas François and Delphine Bernhard
[ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 165:2] 2014
► pp. 97–135

Computational assessment of text readability

A survey of current and future research

 | University of Michigan
Assessing text readability is a time-honored problem that has even more relevance in today’s information-rich world. This article provides background on how readability of texts is assessed automatically, reviews the current state-of-the-art algorithms in automatic modeling and predicting the reading difficulty of texts, and proposes new challenges and opportunities for future exploration not well-covered by current computational research.
Keywords: reading difficulty, text complexity, computational linguistics, readability, machine learning
Published online: 23 January 2015
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.165.2.01col
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Lin, Jionghao, Mladen Rakovic, David Lang, Dragan Gasevic & Guanliang Chen
2022. LAK22: 12th International Learning Analytics and Knowledge Conference, ► pp. 282 ff. DOI logo
Lin, Jionghao, Shaveen Singh, Lele Sha, Wei Tan, David Lang, Dragan Gašević & Guanliang Chen
2022. Is it a good move? Mining effective tutoring strategies from human–human tutorial dialogues. Future Generation Computer Systems 127 ► pp. 194 ff. DOI logo
Olney, Andrew M.
2022. Assessing Readability by Filling Cloze Items with Transformers. In Artificial Intelligence in Education [Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 13355], ► pp. 307 ff. DOI logo
Sharoff, Serge Aleksandrovich
2022. What neural networks know about linguistic complexity. Russian Journal of Linguistics 26:2 ► pp. 371 ff. DOI logo
Solnyshkina, Marina Ivanovna, Danielle S. McNamara & Radif Rifkatovich Zamaletdinov
2022. Natural language processing and discourse complexity studies. Russian Journal of Linguistics 26:2 ► pp. 317 ff. DOI logo
Tapia-Téllez, José Medardo, Aurelio López-López & Samuel González-López
2022. Comprehensibility Analysis and Assessment of Academic Texts. In Artificial Intelligence in Education: Emerging Technologies, Models and Applications [Lecture Notes on Data Engineering and Communications Technologies, 104], ► pp. 51 ff. DOI logo
Zhang, Haomin, Yuting Han, Xing Zhang & Liuran Cui
2022. Frequency, Dispersion and Abstractness in the Lexical Sophistication Analysis of A Learner-Based Word Bank: Dimensionality Reduction and Identification. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 29:2 ► pp. 195 ff. DOI logo
Baazeem, Ibtehal, Hend Al-Khalifa & Abdulmalik Al-Salman
2021. Cognitively Driven Arabic Text Readability Assessment Using Eye-Tracking. Applied Sciences 11:18 ► pp. 8607 ff. DOI logo
Bilal, Dania & Yan Zhang
2021. Teens’ Conceptual Understanding of Web Search Engines: The Case of Google Search Engine Result Pages (SERPs). In Human-Computer Interaction. Design and User Experience Case Studies [Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 12764], ► pp. 253 ff. DOI logo
Huynh, Larry, Thai Nguyen, Joshua Goh, Hyoungshick Kim & Jin B. Hong
2021. Proceedings of the 30th ACM International Conference on Information & Knowledge Management, ► pp. 3847 ff. DOI logo
Karuna, Prakruthi, Hemant Purohit, Sushil Jajodia, Rajesh Ganesan & Ozlem Uzuner
2021. Fake Document Generation for Cyber Deception by Manipulating Text Comprehensibility. IEEE Systems Journal 15:1 ► pp. 835 ff. DOI logo
Liu, Qingxia, Gong Cheng, Kalpa Gunaratna & Yuzhong Qu
2021. Entity summarization: State of the art and future challenges. Journal of Web Semantics 69 ► pp. 100647 ff. DOI logo
Madreiter, Theresa, Linus Kohl & Fazel Ansari
2021. A Text Understandability Approach for Improving Reliability-Centered Maintenance in Manufacturing Enterprises. In Advances in Production Management Systems. Artificial Intelligence for Sustainable and Resilient Production Systems [IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology, 630], ► pp. 161 ff. DOI logo
Martinc, Matej, Senja Pollak & Marko Robnik-Šikonja
2021. Supervised and Unsupervised Neural Approaches to Text Readability. Computational Linguistics 47:1 ► pp. 141 ff. DOI logo
Nouri, Zahra, Ujwal Gadiraju, Gregor Engels & Henning Wachsmuth
2021. Proceedings of the 32st ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media, ► pp. 165 ff. DOI logo
Ojha, Pawan Kumar, Abid Ismail & Kuppusamy Kundumani Srinivasan
2021. Perusal of readability with focus on web content understandability. Journal of King Saud University - Computer and Information Sciences 33:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Omar, Salehah, Juhaida Abu Bakar, Maslinda Mohd Nadzir, Nor Hazlyna Harun & Nooraini Yusoff
2021. 2021 International Conference on Computer & Information Sciences (ICCOINS), ► pp. 345 ff. DOI logo
Peters, Pam & Jan-Louis Kruger
2021. The readability of online health information for L1 and L2 Australians: text-based and user-focused research. Text & Talk 41:5-6 ► pp. 787 ff. DOI logo
Qiang, Jipeng, Xinyu Lu, Yun Li, Yunhao Yuan & Xindong Wu
2021. Chinese Lexical Simplification. IEEE/ACM Transactions on Audio, Speech, and Language Processing 29 ► pp. 1819 ff. DOI logo
Vanroy, Bram, Orphée De Clercq, Arda Tezcan, Joke Daems & Lieve Macken
2021. Metrics of Syntactic Equivalence to Assess Translation Difficulty. In Explorations in Empirical Translation Process Research [Machine Translation: Technologies and Applications, 3], ► pp. 259 ff. DOI logo
Balyan, Renu, Kathryn S. McCarthy & Danielle S. McNamara
2020. Applying Natural Language Processing and Hierarchical Machine Learning Approaches to Text Difficulty Classification. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education 30:3 ► pp. 337 ff. DOI logo
Banks, Amanda, Christopher J. White, Casey Eaton & Bryan Mesmer
2020. ASCEND 2020, DOI logo
Bhardwaj, Anupam, Pooja Khanna, Sachin Kumar & Pragya
2020. Generative Model for NLP Applications based on Component Extraction. Procedia Computer Science 167 ► pp. 918 ff. DOI logo
Buongiovanni, Chiara, Francesco Gracci, Dominique Brunato & Felice Dell’Orletta
2020. Lost in Text: A Cross-Genre Analysis of Linguistic Phenomena within Text. Italian Journal of Computational Linguistics 6:1 ► pp. 47 ff. DOI logo
Clinton, Virginia, Terrill Taylor, Surjya Bajpayee, Mark L. Davison, Sarah E. Carlson & Ben Seipel
2020. Inferential comprehension differences between narrative and expository texts: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Reading and Writing 33:9 ► pp. 2223 ff. DOI logo
Meng, Changping, Muhao Chen, Jie Mao & Jennifer Neville
2020. ReadNet: A Hierarchical Transformer Framework for Web Article Readability Analysis. In Advances in Information Retrieval [Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 12035], ► pp. 33 ff. DOI logo
Pecout, Anaïs, Thi Mai Tran & Natalia Grabar
2020. Améliorer la diffusion de l’information sur la maladie d’Alzheimer : étude pilote sur la simplification de textes médicaux. Éla. Études de linguistique appliquée N° 195:3 ► pp. 325 ff. DOI logo
Santini, Marina & Arne Jönsson
2020. Pinning down text complexity. Register Studies 2:2 ► pp. 306 ff. DOI logo
Antunes, Helder & Carla Teixeira Lopes
2019. 2019 14th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI), ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Antunes, Hélder & Carla Teixeira Lopes
2019. Analyzing the Adequacy of Readability Indicators to a Non-English Language. In Experimental IR Meets Multilinguality, Multimodality, and Interaction [Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 11696], ► pp. 149 ff. DOI logo
Bilal, Dania & Li-Min Huang
2019. Readability and word complexity of SERPs snippets and web pages on children’s search queries. Aslib Journal of Information Management 71:2 ► pp. 241 ff. DOI logo
Chen, Guanliang, Jie Yang & Dragan Gasevic
2019. A Comparative Study on Question-Worthy Sentence Selection Strategies for Educational Question Generation. In Artificial Intelligence in Education [Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 11625], ► pp. 59 ff. DOI logo
Chen, Xiaobin & Detmar Meurers
2019. Linking text readability and learner proficiency using linguistic complexity feature vector distance. Computer Assisted Language Learning 32:4 ► pp. 418 ff. DOI logo
Ismail, Abid, K.S. Kuppusamy, Ajit Kumar & Pawan Kumar Ojha
2019. Connect the dots: Accessibility, readability and site ranking – An investigation with reference to top ranked websites of Government of India. Journal of King Saud University - Computer and Information Sciences 31:4 ► pp. 528 ff. DOI logo
Jiang, Zhiwei, Qing Gu, Yafeng Yin, Jianxiang Wang & Daoxu Chen
2019. GRAW+: A two‐view graph propagation method with word coupling for readability assessment. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology 70:5 ► pp. 433 ff. DOI logo
Malyuga, E. N.
2019. SYNTACTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ADVERTISING DISCOURSE. Vestnik of Samara University. History, pedagogics, philology 25:4 ► pp. 100 ff. DOI logo
Palotti, Joao, Guido Zuccon & Allan Hanbury
2019. Consumer Health Search on the Web: Study of Web Page Understandability and Its Integration in Ranking Algorithms. Journal of Medical Internet Research 21:1 ► pp. e10986 ff. DOI logo
Tseng, Hou-Chiang, Berlin Chen, Tao-Hsing Chang & Yao-Ting Sung
2019. Integrating LSA-based hierarchical conceptual space and machine learning methods for leveling the readability of domain-specific texts. Natural Language Engineering 25:3 ► pp. 331 ff. DOI logo
Tseng, Hou-Chiang, Hsueh-Chih Chen, Kuo-En Chang, Yao-Ting Sung & Berlin Chen
2019. An Innovative BERT-Based Readability Model. In Innovative Technologies and Learning [Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 11937], ► pp. 301 ff. DOI logo
Vanroy, Bram, Orphée De Clercq & Lieve Macken
2019. Correlating process and product data to get an insight into translation difficulty. Perspectives 27:6 ► pp. 924 ff. DOI logo
Dalvean, Michael Coleman & Galbadrakh Enkhbayar
2018. A New Text Readability Measure for Fiction Texts. SSRN Electronic Journal DOI logo
Ferrari, Alessio, Gloria Gori, Benedetta Rosadini, Iacopo Trotta, Stefano Bacherini, Alessandro Fantechi & Stefania Gnesi
2018. Detecting requirements defects with NLP patterns: an industrial experience in the railway domain. Empirical Software Engineering 23:6 ► pp. 3684 ff. DOI logo
Ferro, Marcello, Claudia Cappa, Sara Giulivi, Claudia Marzi, Oaufae Nahli, Franco Alberto Cardillo & Vito Pirrelli
2018. 2018 IEEE 5th International Congress on Information Science and Technology (CiSt), ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Fuhr, Norbert, Anastasia Giachanou, Gregory Grefenstette, Iryna Gurevych, Andreas Hanselowski, Kalervo Jarvelin, Rosie Jones, YiquN Liu, Josiane Mothe, Wolfgang Nejdl, Isabella Peters & Benno Stein
2018. An Information Nutritional Label for Online Documents. ACM SIGIR Forum 51:3 ► pp. 46 ff. DOI logo
Michael Dalvean & Galbadrakh Enkhbayar
2018. Assessing the readability of fiction: a corpus analysis and readability ranking of 200 English fiction texts. Linguistic Research 35:null ► pp. 137 ff. DOI logo
Thoms, Brian, Evren Eryilmaz, Nicole Dubin, Rafael Hernandez & Sara Colon-Cerezo
2018. 2018 IEEE/WIC/ACM International Conference on Web Intelligence (WI), ► pp. 329 ff. DOI logo
Thoms, Brian, Evren Eryilmaz, Nicole Dubin, Rafael Hernandez & Sara Colon-Cerezo
2020. Real-time visualization to improve quality in computer mediated communication. Web Intelligence 18:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Al Khalil, Muhamed, Nizar Habash & Hind Saddiki
2017. Simplification of Arabic Masterpieces for Extensive Reading: A Project Overview. Procedia Computer Science 117 ► pp. 192 ff. DOI logo
Dascalu, Mihai, Philippe Dessus, Laurent Thuez & Stefan Trausan-Matu
2017. How Well Do Student Nurses Write Case Studies? A Cohesion-Centered Textual Complexity Analysis. In Data Driven Approaches in Digital Education [Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 10474], ► pp. 43 ff. DOI logo
Ferrari, Alessio, Felice Dell'Orletta, Andrea Esuli, Vincenzo Gervasi & Stefania Gnesi
2017. Natural Language Requirements Processing: A 4D Vision. IEEE Software 34:6 ► pp. 28 ff. DOI logo
Gadiraju, Ujwal, Jie Yang & Alessandro Bozzon
2017. Proceedings of the 28th ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media, ► pp. 5 ff. DOI logo
Pires, Carla, Afonso Cavaco & Marina Vigário
2017. Towards the Definition of Linguistic Metrics for Evaluating Text Readability. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 24:4 ► pp. 319 ff. DOI logo
Saddiki, Hind, Violetta Cavalli-Sforza & Karim Bouzoubaa
2017. Enhancing Visualization in Readability Reports for Arabic Texts. Procedia Computer Science 117 ► pp. 241 ff. DOI logo
Sheehan, Kathleen M.
2017. Validating Automated Measures of Text Complexity. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice 36:4 ► pp. 35 ff. DOI logo
Bilal, Dania & Jacek Gwizdka
2016. Children's eye‐fixations on google search results. Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology 53:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
De Clercq, Orphée & Véronique Hoste
2016. All Mixed Up? Finding the Optimal Feature Set for General Readability Prediction and Its Application to English and Dutch. Computational Linguistics 42:3 ► pp. 457 ff. DOI logo
Tanaka, Shotaro, Adam Jatowt & Katsumi Tanaka
2016. 2016 IEEE/WIC/ACM International Conference on Web Intelligence (WI), ► pp. 256 ff. DOI logo
Saddiki, Hind, Karim Bouzoubaa & Violetta Cavalli-Sforza
2015. 2015 IEEE/ACS 12th International Conference of Computer Systems and Applications (AICCSA), ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2017. Automatic Text Simplification [Synthesis Lectures on Human Language Technologies, ], DOI logo

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