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Article published In:
ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics
Vol. 168:1 (2017) ► pp.33–69

The updated Vocabulary Levels Test

Developing and validating two new forms of the VLT

| University of Western Ontario
| Kyoto University
| Victoria University of Wellington
The Vocabulary Levels Test (Nation, 1983; Schmitt, Schmitt, & Clapham, 2001) indicates the word frequency level that should be used to select words for learning. The present study involves the development and validation of two new forms of the test. The new forms consist of five levels measuring knowledge of vocabulary at the 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, and 5000 levels. Items for the tests were sourced from Nation’s (2012) BNC/COCA word lists. The research involved first identifying quality items using the data from 1,463 test takers to create two equivalent forms, and then evaluating the forms with the data from a further 250 test takers. This study also makes an initial attempt to validate the new forms using Messick’s (1989, 1995) validity framework.
Article outline
  • Introduction
    • Creating new forms of the Vocabulary Levels Test
  • Development of two equivalent forms
  • Evaluation of the two equivalent forms
    • Instrument
    • Participants
    • Equivalence of the two forms
    • Validation
      • Content aspect of construct validity
      • Substantive aspect of construct validity
      • Structural aspect of construct validity
      • Generalizability aspect of construct validity
        • (1)Item calibration invariance
        • (2)Person measure invariance
        • (3)Reliability
        • (4)Invariance across administrative contexts
      • External aspects of construct validity
  • Discussion
    • Interpreting scores
    • Limitations
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References


This article is currently available as a sample article.

Published online: 5 October 2017
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.168.1.02web
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2022. What Predicts Academic Achievement in EMI Courses? Focus on Vocabulary Knowledge and Self-Perceptions of L2 Skills. SAGE Open 12:2 ► pp. 215824402211010 ff. DOI logo
Möhring, Jupp
2022. Sprachliche Studierfähigkeit im Spiegel produktiver und rezeptiver Wortschatzkompetenz. Informationen Deutsch als Fremdsprache 49:4 ► pp. 384 ff. DOI logo
Nall, Matthew, Ari Huhta & Behzad Mansouri
2022. Close‐Ended Vocabulary Assessments. In The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Pinchbeck, Geoffrey G., Dale Brown, Stuart Mclean & Brandon Kramer
2022. Validating word lists that represent learner knowledge in EFL contexts: The impact of the definition of word and the choice of source corpora. System 106 ► pp. 102771 ff. DOI logo
Read, John & Thi Ngoc Yen Dang
2022. Measuring depth of academic vocabulary knowledge. Language Teaching Research ► pp. 136216882211059 ff. DOI logo
Reynolds, Barry Lee, Xiaowen (Serina) Xie & Quy Huynh Phu Pham
2022. Incidental vocabulary acquisition from listening to English teacher education lectures: A case study from Macau higher education. Frontiers in Psychology 13 DOI logo
Reynolds, Barry Lee, Xiaowen (Serina) Xie & Quy Huynh Phu Pham
2023. The potentials for incidental vocabulary acquisition from listening to computer science academic lectures: a higher education corpus-based case study from Macau. Frontiers in Psychology 14 DOI logo
Sadeghi, Karim
2022. Vocabulary Acquisition and Pedagogy in SLA: An Interview with Norbert Schmitt. In Talking About Second Language Acquisition, ► pp. 89 ff. DOI logo
Snoder, Per & Batia Laufer
2022. EFL Learners' Receptive Knowledge of Derived Words: The Case of Swedish Adolescents. TESOL Quarterly 56:4 ► pp. 1242 ff. DOI logo
Sonbul, Suhad, Dina Abdel Salam El-Dakhs & Hind Al-Otaibi
2022. Translation competence and collocation knowledge: Do congruency and word type have an effect on the accuracy of collocations in translation?. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 16:4 ► pp. 409 ff. DOI logo
Sonbul, Suhad, Dina Abdel Salam El-Dakhs & Hind Al-Otaibi
2020. Productive versus receptive L2 knowledge of polysemous phrasal verbs: A comparison of determining factors. System 95 ► pp. 102361 ff. DOI logo
Song, Tianjiao & Barry Lee Reynolds
2022. The Effects of Lexical Coverage and Topic Familiarity on the Comprehension of L2 Expository Texts. TESOL Quarterly 56:2 ► pp. 763 ff. DOI logo
Uchihara, Takumi
2022. Is it possible to measure word-level comprehensibility and accentedness as independent constructs of pronunciation knowledge?. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics 1:2 ► pp. 100011 ff. DOI logo
Uchihara, Takumi, Masaki Eguchi & Jon Clenton
2022. The contribution of guessing from context and dictionary use to receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge: A structural equation modeling approach. Language Teaching Research ► pp. 136216882211221 ff. DOI logo
Uchihara, Takumi, Stuart Webb, Kazuya Saito & Pavel Trofimovich
2022. THE EFFECTS OF TALKER VARIABILITY AND FREQUENCY OF EXPOSURE ON THE ACQUISITION OF SPOKEN WORD KNOWLEDGE. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 44:2 ► pp. 357 ff. DOI logo
UCHIHARA, TAKUMI, STUART WEBB, KAZUYA SAITO & PAVEL TROFIMOVICH
2022. Does Mode of Input Affect How Second Language Learners Create Form–Meaning Connections and Pronounce Second Language Words?. The Modern Language Journal 106:2 ► pp. 351 ff. DOI logo
Uchihara, Takumi, Stuart Webb, Kazuya Saito & Pavel Trofimovich
2023. Frequency of Exposure Influences Accentedness and Comprehensibility in Learners’ Pronunciation of Second Language Words. Language Learning 73:1 ► pp. 84 ff. DOI logo
VALİZADEH, Mohammadreza
2022. Investigating the Impacts of Mobile Assisted Reading on EFL Learners’ Vocabulary Knowledge Development. Sakarya University Journal of Education 12:3 ► pp. 573 ff. DOI logo
Vu, Duy Van & Elke Peters
2022. Learning Vocabulary from Reading-only, Reading-while-listening, and Reading with Textual Input Enhancement: Insights from Vietnamese EFL Learners. RELC Journal 53:1 ► pp. 85 ff. DOI logo
Vu, Duy Van & Elke Peters
2022. INCIDENTAL LEARNING OF COLLOCATIONS FROM MEANINGFUL INPUT. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 44:3 ► pp. 685 ff. DOI logo
Vu, Duy Van & Elke Peters
2023. A Longitudinal Study on the Effect of Mode of Reading on Incidental Collocation Learning and Predictors of Learning Gains. TESOL Quarterly 57:1 ► pp. 5 ff. DOI logo
Xodabande, Ismail, Asqar Pourhassan & Mohammadreza Valizadeh
2022. Self-directed learning of core vocabulary in English by EFL learners: comparing the outcomes from paper and mobile application flashcards. Journal of Computers in Education 9:1 ► pp. 93 ff. DOI logo
Yang, Lu & Averil Coxhead
2022. A Corpus-based Study of Vocabulary in the New Concept English Textbook Series. RELC Journal 53:3 ► pp. 597 ff. DOI logo
Yu, Xi, Frank Boers & Paul Tremblay
2022. Learning multiword items through dictation and dictogloss: How task performance predicts learning outcomes. Language Teaching Research ► pp. 136216882211172 ff. DOI logo
Ahrabi Fakhr, Masoud, Davood Borzabadi Farahani & Ali Akbar Khomeijani Farahani
2021. Incidental Vocabulary Learning and Retention from Audiovisual Input and Factors Affecting Them. English Teaching & Learning 45:2 ► pp. 167 ff. DOI logo
Borràs, Judith & Àngels Llanes
2021. Investigating the impact of a semester-long study abroad program on L2 reading and vocabulary development. Study Abroad Research in Second Language Acquisition and International Education 6:2 ► pp. 276 ff. DOI logo
Borràs, Judith & Àngels Llanes
2022. Traditional Study Abroad vs. ELFSA: Differences and Similarities in L2 Reading, Vocabulary, and Use. Journal of Language, Identity & Education ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Busby, Nicole Louise
2021. Words from where?. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 172:1 ► pp. 58 ff. DOI logo
Cobb, Tom & Batia Laufer
2021. The Nuclear Word Family List: A List of the Most Frequent Family Members, Including Base and Affixed Words. Language Learning 71:3 ► pp. 834 ff. DOI logo
De la Maya Retamar, Guadalupe & Magdalena López-Pérez
2021. Hábitos lectores y competencia léxica de futuros profesores de inglés em Educación Primaria. Educ. Form. 6:1 ► pp. e3504 ff. DOI logo
Ha, Hung Tan
2021. A Rasch-based validation of the Vietnamese version of the Listening Vocabulary Levels Test. Language Testing in Asia 11:1 DOI logo
Ha, Hung Tan
2021. Exploring the relationships between various dimensions of receptive vocabulary knowledge and L2 listening and reading comprehension. Language Testing in Asia 11:1 DOI logo
Ha, Hung Tan
2022. Lexical Profile of Newspapers Revisited: A Corpus-Based Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology 13 DOI logo
Ha, Hung Tan
2022. Test Format and Local Dependence of Items Revisited: A Case of Two Vocabulary Levels Tests. Frontiers in Psychology 12 DOI logo
Ha, Hung Tan
2022. Issues in matching learners to their reading levels using receptive vocabulary knowledge – A closer look at the vocabulary levels tests and scoring methods. Heliyon 8:8 ► pp. e10244 ff. DOI logo
Janebi Enayat, Mostafa & Ali Derakhshan
2021. Vocabulary size and depth as predictors of second language speaking ability. System 99 ► pp. 102521 ff. DOI logo
Jin, Zhouhan & Stuart Webb
2021. Does writing words in notes contribute to vocabulary learning?. Language Teaching Research ► pp. 136216882110621 ff. DOI logo
Laufer, Batia, Stuart Webb, Su Kyung Kim & Beverley Yohanan
2021. How well do learners know derived words in a second language?. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 172:2 ► pp. 229 ff. DOI logo
Macis, Marijana, Suhad Sonbul & Rezan Alharbi
2021. The effect of spacing on incidental and deliberate learning of L2 collocations. System 103 ► pp. 102649 ff. DOI logo
Nation, I.S.P. & Averil Coxhead
2021. Measuring Native-Speaker Vocabulary Size, DOI logo
Nation, Paul
2021. Is it worth teaching vocabulary?. TESOL Journal 12:4 DOI logo
Nation, Paul
2024. Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. In Reference Module in Social Sciences, DOI logo
Nguyen, Chi-Duc
2021. Lexical Features of Reading Passages in English-language Textbooks for Vietnamese High-school Students: Do they Foster both Content and Vocabulary Gain?. RELC Journal 52:3 ► pp. 509 ff. DOI logo
Read, John
2021. Second Language Vocabulary Assessment. In Research Questions in Language Education and Applied Linguistics [Springer Texts in Education, ], ► pp. 387 ff. DOI logo
Read, John
2023. Towards a new sophistication in vocabulary assessment. Language Testing 40:1 ► pp. 40 ff. DOI logo
Sompura, Rashmin T.
2021. NCERT CLASS 1 ENGLISH MARIGOLD: WORD LIST BY FREQUENCY. Towards Excellence ► pp. 1027 ff. DOI logo
Sonbul, Suhad & Dina Abdel Salam El-Dakhs
2021. L2 knowledge of English prefixes: The effect of vocabulary breadth and exposure. Language Teaching Research ► pp. 136216882110450 ff. DOI logo
Stewart, Jeffrey, Tim Stoeckel, Stuart McLean, Paul Nation & Geoffrey G. Pinchbeck
2021. WHAT THE RESEARCH SHOWS ABOUT WRITTEN RECEPTIVE VOCABULARY TESTING. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:2 ► pp. 462 ff. DOI logo
Stoeckel, Tim, Stuart McLean & Paul Nation
2021. LIMITATIONS OF SIZE AND LEVELS TESTS OF WRITTEN RECEPTIVE VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:1 ► pp. 181 ff. DOI logo
Webb, Stuart
2021. WORD FAMILIES AND LEMMAS, NOT A REAL DILEMMA. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:5 ► pp. 973 ff. DOI logo
Webb, Stuart
2021. THE LEMMA DILEMMA. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:5 ► pp. 941 ff. DOI logo
Webb, Stuart
2021. A DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE ON THE LIMITATIONS OF SIZE AND LEVELS TESTS OF WRITTEN RECEPTIVE VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:2 ► pp. 454 ff. DOI logo
Akbarian, Is’haaq, Fatemeh Farajollahi & Rosa María Jiménez Catalán
2020. EFL learners’ lexical availability: Exploring frequency, exposure, and vocabulary level. System 91 ► pp. 102261 ff. DOI logo
Ballance, Oliver James & Averil Coxhead
2020. How much vocabulary is needed to use a concordance?. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 25:1 ► pp. 36 ff. DOI logo
Dang, Thi Ngoc Yen & Stuart Webb
2020. Vocabulary and Good Language Teachers. In Lessons from Good Language Teachers, ► pp. 203 ff. DOI logo
Durbahn, Marion, Michael Rodgers & Elke Peters
2020. The relationship between vocabulary and viewing comprehension. System 88 ► pp. 102166 ff. DOI logo
Feng, Yanxue & Stuart Webb
2020. LEARNING VOCABULARY THROUGH READING, LISTENING, AND VIEWING. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 42:3 ► pp. 499 ff. DOI logo
Laufer, Batia & Tom Cobb
2020. How Much Knowledge of Derived Words Is Needed for Reading?. Applied Linguistics 41:6 ► pp. 971 ff. DOI logo
Mairano, Paolo & Fabian Santiago
2020. What vocabulary size tells us about pronunciation skills: Issues in assessing L2 learners. Journal of French Language Studies 30:2 ► pp. 141 ff. DOI logo
Papin, Kevin & Regina Kaplan-Rakowski
2020. A Study of Vocabulary Learning Using Annotated 360° Pictures. SSRN Electronic Journal DOI logo
Papin, Kevin & Regina Kaplan-Rakowski
2024. A study of vocabulary learning using annotated 360° pictures. Computer Assisted Language Learning 37:5-6 ► pp. 1108 ff. DOI logo
Schmitt, Norbert, Paul Nation & Benjamin Kremmel
2020. Moving the field of vocabulary assessment forward: The need for more rigorous test development and validation. Language Teaching 53:1 ► pp. 109 ff. DOI logo
Schmitt, Norbert & Diane Schmitt
2020. Vocabulary in Language Teaching, DOI logo
Sun, Ye & Thi Ngoc Yen Dang
2020. Vocabulary in high-school EFL textbooks: Texts and learner knowledge. System 93 ► pp. 102279 ff. DOI logo
Uchihara, Takumi & Jon Clenton
2020. Investigating the role of vocabulary size in second language speaking ability. Language Teaching Research 24:4 ► pp. 540 ff. DOI logo
Uchihara, Takumi & Jon Clenton
2023. The role of spoken vocabulary knowledge in second language speaking proficiency. The Language Learning Journal 51:3 ► pp. 376 ff. DOI logo
Malone, Jonathan Edward
2019. How Vocabulary is Learned, by S. Webb and P. Nation (2017). Instructed Second Language Acquisition 3:1 ► pp. 115 ff. DOI logo
Pecorari, Diane, Philip Shaw & Hans Malmström
2019. Developing a new academic vocabulary test. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 39 ► pp. 59 ff. DOI logo
Peters, Elke, Tom Velghe & Tinne Van Rompaey
2019. The VocabLab tests. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 170:1 ► pp. 53 ff. DOI logo
Uchihara, Takumi, Stuart Webb & Akifumi Yanagisawa
2019. The Effects of Repetition on Incidental Vocabulary Learning: A Meta‐Analysis of Correlational Studies. Language Learning 69:3 ► pp. 559 ff. DOI logo
Dang, Thi Ngoc Yen
2018. The nature of vocabulary in academic speech of hard and soft-sciences. English for Specific Purposes 51 ► pp. 69 ff. DOI logo
Dang, Thi Ngoc Yen
2022. A corpus-based study of vocabulary in conference presentations. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 59 ► pp. 101144 ff. DOI logo
Janebi Enayat, Mostafa, Seyed Mohammad Reza Amirian, Gholamreza Zareian & Saeed Ghaniabadi
2018. Reliable Measure of Written Receptive Vocabulary Size: Using the L2 Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge as a Yardstick. SAGE Open 8:1 ► pp. 215824401775222 ff. DOI logo
Szabo, Csaba Z.
2018. Book review. System 74 ► pp. 220 ff. DOI logo
Webb, Stuart & Paul Nation
2018. Teaching Vocabulary. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Webb, Stuart A.
2018. Advanced Lexical Development. In The Handbook of Advanced Proficiency in Second Language Acquisition, ► pp. 401 ff. DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2022. Research Methods in Vocabulary Studies [Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 2], DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 13 september 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.