Cover not available
Article published In:
Journal of Second Language Studies
Vol. 1:2 (2018) ► pp.254–276

L2 acquisition in childhood, adulthood and old age

Misreported and under-researched dimensions of the age factor

| Trinity College Dublin | University of Pannonia
| University of Salzburg
This article deals with some misunderstandings about the age factor in second language acquisition which result from a reliance on an incomplete interpretation of relevant research findings. It begins with an exploration of the work of Penfield and Lenneberg and goes on to weigh recent evidence for and against the hypothesis of a “critical period” in the context of naturalistic second language acquisition. It then turns to the question of the effects of early instructed second language learning. Finally, it addresses the issue of second language learning in late adulthood, summarizing the results of such empirical investigation as has been undertaken to date on this topic and arguing for more attention to be devoted to this area in the future.
Keywords: age factor, Penfield, Lenneberg, critical period, early L2 instruction, third age L2 learning
Article outline
  • Introduction
  • Penfield and Lenneberg
  • The critical period hypothesis
  • The effects of early second language instruction at school
  • Language learning in older adulthood
  • Concluding remarks
  • References
Published online: 27 August 2018
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/jsls.00003.sin
References
Abrahamsson, N., & Hyltenstam, K.
(2009) Age of onset and nativelikeness in a second language: Listener perception versus linguistic scrutiny. Language Learning, 59(2), 249–306. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Antoniou, M., Gunasekera, G. M., & Wong, P. C. M.
(2013) Foreign language training as cognitive therapy for age-related cognitive decline: A hypothesis for future research. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(10), 2689–2698. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Aram, D., Bates, E., Eisele, J., Fenson, J., Nass, R., Thal, D., & Trauner, D.
(1997) From first words to grammar in children with focal brain injury. Developmental Neuropsychology, 13(3), 275–343. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Asher, J., & Garcia, R.
(1969) The optimal age to learn a foreign language. Modern Language Journal, 531, 334–341. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bak, T. H., Long, M. R., Vega-Mendoza, M., & Sorace, A.
(2016) Novelty, challenge, and practice: The impact of intensive language learning on attentional functions. PLoS One, 111, 1–11. DOI logo.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Miller, B.
(1999) The problem of age in second-language acquisition: Influences from language, structure, and task. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 21, 127–145. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Poarch, G. J.
(2014) Language experience changes language and cognitive ability. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 17(3), 433–446. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Birdsong, D.
(2014) The Critical Period Hypothesis for second language acquisition: Tailoring the coat of many colors. In M. Pawlak & L. Aronin (Eds.), Essential topics in applied linguistics and multilingualism (pp. 43–50). Heidelberg: Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Blanco, N. J., Love, B. C., Ramscar, M., Otto, A. R., Smayda, K., & Maddox, W. T.
(2016) Exploratory decision-making as a function of lifelong experience, not cognitive decline. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 1451, 284–297. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Burke, D. M., & Shafto, M. A.
(2008) Language and aging. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (Vol. 31, pp. 373–443). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Burstall, C.
(1975) Primary French in the balance. Foreign Language Annals, 10(3), 245–252. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bytheway, B.
(1994) Ageism. Buckingham: Open University Press.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B.
(1975) The teaching of French as a foreign language in eight countries. New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar
Chugani, H. T., Behen, M. E., Muzik, O., Juhasz, C., Nagy, F. & Chugani, D. C.
(2001) Local brain functional activity following early deprivation: A study of post-institutionalized Romanian orphans. NeuroImage, 14(6), 1290–1301. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cook, V.
(2002) Background to the L2 user. In V. Cook (Ed.), Portraits of the L2 user (pp. 1–28). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cook, V. & Li Wei
(Eds.) (2016) The Cambridge handbook of linguistic multicompetence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cox, J. G.
(2017) Explicit instruction, bilingualism, and the older adult learner. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 39(1), 29–58. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cullum, S., Huppert, F. a., McGee, M., Dening, T., Ahmed, a., Paykel, E. S., & Brayne, C.
(2000) Decline across different domains of cognitive function in normal ageing: Results of a longitudinal population-based study using CAMCOG. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 15(9): 853–862. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Damoiseaux, J. S., Beckmann, C. F., Arigita, E. J. S., Barkhof, F., Scheltens, P., Stam, C. J., … Rombouts, S. a. R .B.
(2008) Reduced resting-state brain activity in the “default network” in normal aging. Cerebral Cortex, 18(8), 1856–1864. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Davies, A.
(2003) The native speaker: Myth and reality. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2004) The native speaker in applied linguistics. In A. Davies & C. Elder (Eds.), The handbook of applied linguistics (pp. 431–450). Malden, MA: Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Davies, J., & Brember, I.
(2001) The closing gap in attitudes between boys and girls: A five-year longitudinal study. Educational Psychology, 21(1), 103–115. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dechert, H. W.
(1995) Some critical remarks concerning Penfield’s theory of second language acquisition. In D. Singleton & Z. Lengyel (Eds.), The age factor in second language acquisition (pp. 67–94). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Degnen, C.
(2007) Minding the gap: The construction of old age and oldness amongst peers. Journal of Aging Studies, 211, 69–80. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
DeKeyser, R.
(2003) Implicit and explicit learning. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 313–348). London: Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2013) Age effects in second language learning: Stepping stones toward better understanding. Language Learning, 63(Suppl. 1), 52–67. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dowens, M. G., Vergara, M., Barber, H. a., & Carreiras, M.
(2010) Morphosyntactic processing in late second-language learners. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22(8), 1870–1887. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Engle, R. W., & Kane, M.
(2004) Executive attention, working memory capacity, and a two-factor theory of cognitive control. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (pp. 145–199). Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Flege, J. E., Yeni-Komshian, G. H., & Liu, S.
(1999) Age constraints on second language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 41(1), 78–104. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Giroud, N., Hirsiger, S., Muri, R., Kegel, A., Dillier, N., & Meyer, M.
(2017) Neuroanatomical and resting state EEG power correlates of central hearing loss in older adults. Brain Structure and Function. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Giroud, N., Lemke, U., Reich, P., Matthes, K. L., & Meyer, M.
(2016) Longitudinal auditory learning facilitates auditory cognition as revealed by microstate analysis. Biological Psychology, 1231, 25–26. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Goral, M., Spiro, A., Albert, M., Obler, L., & Connor, L.
(2007) Change in lexical retrieval skills in adulthood. Mental Lexicon, 2(2), 215–240. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Green, D.
(2018) The interactional challenge: L2 learning and use in the third age. In D. Gabrys-Barker (Ed.), Third age learners of foreign languages (pp. 31–47). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Grosjean, F.
(1992) Another view of bilingualism. In R. Harris (ed.), Cognitive processing in bilinguals (pp. 51–62). Amsterdam: North-Holland. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gullette, M. M.
(2003) From life storytelling to age autobiography. Journal of Aging Studies, 171, 101–111. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gutchess, A.
(2014) Plasticity of the aging brain: New directions in cognitive neuroscience. Science, 346(6209), 579–582. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Harley, B.
(1986) Age in second language acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Hyltenstam, K.
(1992) Non-native features of near-native speakers: On the ultimate attainment of childhood L2 learners. Advances in Psychology, 831, 351–368. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2012) Critical period. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), Encyclopedia of applied linguistics. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Irni, S.
(2010) Ageing apparatuses at work. Transdisciplinary negotiations of sex, age and materiality. Åbo: Åbo Akademi University Press.Google Scholar
Isopahkala-Bouret, U.
(2015) Graduation at age 50+: Contested efforts to construct “third age” identities and negotiate cultural age stereotypes. Journal of Aging Studies, 351, 1–9. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jarvis, S., & Pavlenko, A.
(2008) Crosslinguistic influence in language and cognition. London: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jia, G., & Aaronson, D.
(2003) A longitudinal study of Chinese children and adolescents learning English in the United States. Applied Psycholinguistics, 241, 131–161. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L.
(1989) Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21(1), 60–99. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jones, P. E.
(1995) Contradictions and unanswered questions in the Genie case: A fresh look at the linguistic evidence. Language and Communication, 15(3), 261–280. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kamler, B.
(1999) Learning at the end of your life: A pedagogy of relocation. In M. Poole & S. Feldman (Eds.), A certain age: Women growing older. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.Google Scholar
Kinsella, C., & Singleton, D.
(2014) Much more than age. Applied Linguistics, 35(4), 441–462. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kliesch, M., Giroud, N., Pfenninger, S. E., & Meyer, M.
(2018) Research on second language acquisition in old adulthood: What we have and what we need. In D. Gabrys-Barker (Ed.), Third age learners of foreign languages (pp. 48–76). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Krashen, S.
(1973) Lateralization, language learning and the critical period: Some new evidence. Language Learning, 23(1), 63–74. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lenneberg, E. H.
(1967) Biological foundations of language. New York, NY: Wiley. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, A. M., Borovsky, A., Hatrak, M., & Mayberry, R. I.
(2015) Real-time processing of ASL signs: Delayed first language acquisition affects organization of the mental lexicon. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41(4), 1130.Google Scholar
Lindenberger, U.
(2014) Human cognitive aging. Science, 346(6209), 572–578. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Long, M.
(2013) Maturational constraints on child and adult SLA. In G. Granena & M. Long (Eds.), Sensitive periods, language aptitude and ultimate attainment (pp. 3–42). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lovelace, E. A., & Twohig, P. T.
(1990) Healthy older adults’ perceptions of their memory functioning and use of mnemonics. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 281, 115–118. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mackey, A., & Sachs, R.
(2012) Older learners in SLA research: A first look at working memory, feedback, and L2 development. Language Learning, 62(3), 704–740. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Marinova-Todd, S.
(2003) Comprehensive analysis of ultimate attainment in adult second language acquisition (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Harvard University.Google Scholar
Marinova-Todd, S. H., Marshall, B., & Snow, C. E.
(2000) Three misconceptions about age and L2 learning. TESOL Quarterly, 34(1), 9–34. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mayberry, R. I., & Lock, E.
(2003) Age constraints on first versus second language acquisition: Evidence for linguistic plasticity and epigenesis. Brain and Language, 87(3), 369–384. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McDonald, J. R.
(2000) Grammaticality judgments in a second language: Influence of age of acquisition and native language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21(3), 395–423. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Montrul, S.
(2008) Incomplete acquisition in bilingualism: Re-examining the age factor. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Moyer, A.
(2013) Foreign accent. The phenomenon of non-native speech. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2014) Exceptional outcomes in L2 phonology: The critical factors of learner engagement and self-regulation. Applied Linguistics, 35(4), 418–440. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C.
(Ed.) (2006) Age and the rate of foreign language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2008) Symmetries and asymmetries of age effects in naturalistic and instructed L2 learning. Applied Linguistics, 29(4), 578–596. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C., & Singleton, D.
(2007) Foreign accent in advanced learners. Two successful profiles. Eurosla Yearbook, 71, 171–190. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2011) A critical review of age-related research on L2 ultimate attainment. Language Teaching, 44(1), 1–3. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Murphy, V. A.
(2014) Second language learning in the early school years: Trends and contexts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Naveh-Benjamin, M., & Old, S. R.
(2008) Aging and memory. In J. H. Byrne, H. Eichenbaum, R. Menzel, H. L. Roedige, & D. Sweatt (Eds), Learning and memory: A comprehensive reference (pp. 787–808). Oxford: Elsevier. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nenert, R., Allendorfer, J. B., Martin, A. M., Banks, C., Vannest, J., Holland, S. K. & Szaflarski, J. P.
(2017) Age-related language lateralization assessed by fMRI: The effects of sex and handedness. Brain Research, 16741, 20–35. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Newport, E. L., & Supalla, T.
(1987) A critical period effect in the acquisition of a primary language (Unpublished manuscript). University of Illinois.Google Scholar
Norton, D. L.
(1976) Personal destinies: A philosophy of ethical individualism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Park, D. C., & Reuter-Lorenz, P.
(2009) The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annual Review of Psychology, 601, 173–196. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Patkowski, M. S.
(1980) The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language. Language Learning, 30(2), 449–468. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Peltzer-Karpf, A.
(2003) The role of neural plasticity in foreign language learning. In R. Ahrens (Ed.), Europäische Sprachenpolitik – European Language Policy (pp. 369–393). Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter.Google Scholar
Penfield, W. G., & Roberts, L.
(1959) Speech and brain mechanisms. New York, NY: Atheneum Press.Google Scholar
Pfenninger, S. E., & Polz, S.
under review). Foreign language learning in the third age: A pilot feasibility study on cognitive, socio-affective and linguistic drivers and benefits. Journal of the European Second Language Association.
Pfenninger, S. E., & Singleton, D.
(2017) Beyond age effects in instructional L2 learning: Revisiting the age factor. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
in press). Starting age overshadowed: The primacy of differential environmental and family support effects on L2 attainment in an instructional context. Language Learning.
in preparation). A critical review of research relating to the learning, use and effects of additional and multiple languages in senior adulthood. Language Teaching.
Piske, T., Flege, J. E., Mackay, I. R., & Meador, D.
(2002) The production of English vowels by fluent early and late Italian-English bilinguals. Phonetica, 59(1), 49–71. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pot, A., Keijzer, M., de Bot, K.
(2018) Enhancing language awareness in migrants’ third age to promote wellbeing. In D. Gabrys-Barker (Ed.), Third age learners of foreign languages (pp. 176–200). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Prat, C. S., Yamasaki, B. L., Kluender, R. A., & Stocco, A.
(2016) Resting-state qEEG predicts rate of second language learning in adults. Brain and Language, 157–1581: 44–50. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ramírez Gómez, D.
(2016) Language teaching and the older adult: The significance of experience. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ramos, S., García, Y. F., Casaponsa, A., & Duñabeitia, J. A.
(2017) Does learning a language in the elderly enhance switching ability? Journal of Neurolinguistics, 431, 39–48. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ramscar, M., Yarlett, D., Dye, M., Denny, K., & Thorpe, K.
(2010) The effects of feature-label-order and their implications for symbolic learning. Cognitive Science, 341, 909–957. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ramscar, M., Dye, M., & Klein, J.
(2013a) Children value informativity over logic in word learning. Psychological Science, 24(6), 1017–1023. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ramscar, M., Dye, M., & McCauley, S. M.
(2013b) Error and expectation in language learning: The curious absence of mouses in adult speech. Language, 891, 760–793. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ramscar, M., P. Hendrix, C. Shaoul, P. Milin, & H. Baayen
(2014) The myth of cognitive decline: Non-linear dynamics of lifelong learning. Topics in Cognitive Science, 61, 5–42. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ramscar, M., C. C. Sun, P. Hendri, & H. Baayen
(2017) The mismeasurement of mind: Life-span changes in paired-associatel learning scores reflect the “cost” of learning, not cognitive decline. Psychological Science, 28(8), 1171–1179. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Raz, N., & Lindenberger, U.
(2013) Life-span plasticity of the brain and cognition: From questions to evidence and back. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(9B), 2195–2200. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R.
(2002) Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. Harlow: Pearson Education.Google Scholar
Ryan, S., & Dörnyei, Z.
(2013) The long-term evolution of language motivation and the L2 self. In A. Berndt (Ed.), Fremdsprachen in der Perspektive lebenslangen Lernens (pp. 89–100). Frankfurt: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Salat, D. H., Buckner, R. L., Snyder, A. Z., Greve, D. N., Desikan, R. S. R., Busa, E., … Fischl, B.
(2004) Thinning of the cerebral cortex in aging. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991), 14(7), 721–730.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A.
(2000) Aging and measures of processing speed. Biological Psychology, 54(1–3), 35–54. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schlegel, A. A., Rudelson, J. J., & Tse, P. U.
(2012) White matter structure changes as adults learn a second language. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24(8), 1664–1670. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Seliger, H., Krashen, S., & Ladefoged, P.
(1975) Maturational constraints in the acquisition of a native-like accent in second language learning. Language Sciences, 361, 20–22.Google Scholar
Singleton, D.
(2005) The Critical Period Hypothesis: A coat of many colours. International Review of Applied Linguistics (IRAL), 43(4), 269–285. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Singleton, D., & Muñoz, C.
(2011) Around and beyond the Critical Period Hypothesis. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (Vol. 21, pp. 407–425). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Singleton, D., & Pfenninger, S. E.
(2016) Reporting on politically sensitive issues: The case of telling the truth about early L2 instruction. In H. Rose & J. McKinley (Eds.), Doing real research in applied linguistics (pp. 214–224). London: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
in press). Exploring a poorly understood variable: An agenda for classroom research on the age factor. Language Teaching.
Skrzypek, A., & Singleton, D.
(2016) Age and identity. In V. Regan, C. Diskin, & J. Martyn (Eds.), New approaches to multilingualism and identity in transnational contexts (pp. 83–97). Oxford: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Soskey, L., Holcomb, P. J., & Midgley, K. J.
(2016) Language effects in second-language learners: A longitudinal electrophysiological study of Spanish classroom learning. Brain Research, 16461, 44–52. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sowell, E. R., Peterson, B. S., Thompson, P. M., Welcome, S. E., Henkenius, A. L., & Toga, A. W.
(2003) Mapping cortical change across the human life span. Nature Neuroscience, 6(3), 309–315. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Strauss, E., Sherman, E. M. S., & Spreen, O.
(2006) A compendium of neuropsychological tests: Administration, norms, and commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S.
(1989) Aspects of the sociolinguistic performance of early and late French immersion students. In R. Scarcella, E. Anderson, & S. Krashen (Ed.), On the development of communicative competence in a second language (pp. 41–54). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Tragant, E.
(2006) Language learning motivation and age. In C. Muñoz (Ed.), Age and the rate of foreign language learning (pp. 237–268). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Turnbull, M., Lapkin, S., Hart, D., & Swain, M.
(1998) Time on task and immersion graduates’ French proficiency. In S. Lapkin (Ed.), French second language education in Canada: Empirical studies (pp. 31–55). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Van Der Meij, M., Cuetos, F., Carreiras, M., & Barber, H. A.
(2011) Electrophysiological correlates of language switching in second language learners. Psychophysiology, 48(1), 44–54. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Verhaeghen, P., & Cerella, J.
(2008) Everything we know about aging and response times: A meta-analytic integration. In S. C. Hofer & D. F. Alwin (Eds.), Handbook of cognitive aging: Interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 134–150). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vincent, J.
(2003) Old age. London: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ware, C., S. Damnee, L. Djabelkhir, V. Cristancho, Y. -H. Wu et al.
(2017) Maintaining cognitive functioning in healthy seniors with a technology-based foreign language program: A pilot feasibility study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 9(42).Google Scholar
Ybarra, O., Burnstein, E., Winkielman, P., Keller, M. C., Manis, M., Chan, E., & Rodriguez, J.
(2008) Mental exercising through simple socializing: Social interaction promotes general cognitive functioning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 341, 248–259. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cited by

Cited by 9 other publications

Bylund, Emanuel, Kenneth Hyltenstam & Niclas Abrahamsson
2021. Age of acquisition – not bilingualism – is the primary determinant of less than nativelike L2 ultimate attainment. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 24:1 ► pp. 18 ff. DOI logo
Erk, Mirna & Višnja Pavičić Takač
2021. Teacher target language input and young learners’ aural comprehension of English. ExELL 9:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Flynn, Colin J.
2023. Singleton, David. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Haim, Orly
2021. Exploring perceived multilingual proficiency among immigrant youth with different arrival ages in the destination country. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Klimova, Blanka
2021. Are There Any Cognitive Benefits of Computer-Based Foreign Language Training for Healthy Elderly People? – A Mini-Review. Frontiers in Psychology 11 DOI logo
Klimova, Blanka & Marcel Pikhart
2020. Current Research on the Impact of Foreign Language Learning Among Healthy Seniors on Their Cognitive Functions From a Positive Psychology Perspective—A Systematic Review. Frontiers in Psychology 11 DOI logo
Pfenninger, Simone E.
2022. Emergent bilinguals in a digital world: a dynamic analysis of long-term L2 development in (pre)primary school children. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 60:1 ► pp. 41 ff. DOI logo
Singleton, David & Colin J. Flynn
2021. Language aptitude, language interaction and age of language learning. Language, Interaction and Acquisition 12:2 ► pp. 284 ff. DOI logo
Ware, Caitlin, Sophie Dautricourt, Julie Gonneaud & Gael Chételat
2021. Does Second Language Learning Promote Neuroplasticity in Aging? A Systematic Review of Cognitive and Neuroimaging Studies. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 13 DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 29 october 2023. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.