Subject pronouns in Spanish-English code-switching
A test of two models
While the Minimalist Program argues that Spanish-English code-switches between pronominal subjects and finite verbs are ungrammatical (
Van Gelderen & MacSwan, 2008), the MLF/4-M models (
Myers-Scotton, 1993;
Myers-Scotton & Jake, 2000) predict their grammaticality when overt pronouns are obligatory in both languages (e.g., contrastive focus). In this study, we test the contrary predictions of these models using a code-switching production task. Thirty-eight Spanish-English bilinguals (31 female; Age: 18–23 years) completed a concurrent memory-loaded repetition task where visual primes forced broad or contrastive focus interpretations. We also examined the effects of switch direction, code-switching frequency, and language dominance. The results showed that code-switches between a Spanish overt pronoun and an English inflected verb were more accurately produced in the contrastive focus than the broad focus condition, lending support for the MLF/4-M models. No effect of code-switching frequency was found. Finally, higher Spanish dominance resulted in more accurate production of these code-switches.
Article outline
- 1.Introduction
- 2.The present study
- 3.Methods
- 3.1Participants
- 3.2Materials
- 3.3Task and procedure
- 3.4Unilingual Spanish
- 3.5Analysis and results
- 4.Discussion
- 5.Conclusion
- Notes
-
References
References (60)
References
Alonso-Ovalle, L., Clifton, C., Frazier, L., & Fernández Solera, S. (2002). Null vs. overt pronouns and the topic-focus articulation in Spanish. Journal of Italian Linguistics,
14
(2), 151–169.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Azuma, S., & Meier, R. (1997). Open class and closed class: Sentence-imitation experiments on intrasential code-switching. Applied Psycholinguistics,
18
1, 257–276. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Beatty-Martínez, A. L., & Dussias, P. E. (2017). Bilingual experience shapes language processing: Evidence from codeswitching. Journal of Memory and Language,
95
1, 173–189. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bentahila, A., & Davies, E. E. (1983). The syntax of Arabic-French code-switching. Lingua,
59
(4), 301–330. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Birdsong, D., Gertken, L. M., & Amengual, M. (2012). Bilingual Language Profile: An easy-to-use instrument to assess bilingualism. COERLL, University of Texas at Austin. Web 20 Jan. 2012. [URL]
Blackburn, A. M. (2013). A study of the relationship between code switching and the bilingual advantage: Evidence that language use modulates neural indices of language processing and cognitive control. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. The University of Texas at San Antonio.
Camacho, J. (2013). Null subjects. Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Carminatti, M. N. (2002). The processing of Italian subject pronouns. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Massachusetts at Amherst.
Cedrus Corporation. (2015). SuperLab [SuperLab 5.0.5]. [URL]
Chomsky, N. (1991). Linguistics and cognitive science: Problems and mysteries. In A. Kasher (Ed.), The Chomskyan turn. (pp. 26–53). Blackwell.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chomsky, N. (1995). The Minimalist Program. MIT Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dewaele, J. M., & Wei, L. (2014). Attitudes towards code-switching among adult mono- and multilingual language users, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development,
35
(3), 235–251. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
English Language Institute (2001). MELICET-GCVR user’s manual. English Language Institute, The University of Michigan.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Fernández Fuertes, R., Liceras, J. M., & Alba de la Fuente, A. (2016). Beyond the subject DP versus the subject pronoun divide in agreement switches. In C. Tortora, M. den Dikken, Montoya, I., & O’Neill, T. (Eds.), Selected papers from the 43rd Linguistic Symposium on Romance Languages (LSRL) (pp. 79–98). John Benjamins. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Greene, K. J., Pena, E. D., & Bedore, L. M. (2012). Lexical choice and language selection in bilingual preschoolers. Child Language Teaching and Therapy,
29
(1), 27–39. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gullberg, M., Indefrey, P., & Muysken, P. (2009). Research techniques for the study of code-switching. In B. E. Bullock & J. A. Toribio (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook on linguistic code-switching. (pp. 21–39). Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Guzzardo Tamargo, R. E., Valdés Kroff, J. R. V., & Dussias, P. E. (2016). Examining the relationship between comprehension and production processes in code-switched language. Journal of Memory and Language,
89
1, 138–161. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Herring, J. R., Deuchar, M., Parafita Couto, M. C., & Moro Quintanilla, M. (2010). ‘I saw the madre’: Evaluating predictions about code-switched determiner-noun sequences using Spanish-English and Welsh-English data. International Journal of Bilingualism Education and Bilingualism, (
13
)51, 553–573. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jake, J. (1994). Intrasentential code switching and pronouns: On the categorical status of functional elements. Linguistics
32
(2), 271–298. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jake, J., & Myers-Scotton, C. (2020). The 4-M model: Different routes in production for different morphemes. In E. Adamou & Y. Matras (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Language Contact. (pp. 63–87). Taylor and Francis. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jevtović, M., Duñabeitia, J. A., & de Bruin, A. (2020). How do bilinguals switch between languages in different interactional contexts? A comparison between voluntary and mandatory language switching. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition,
23
(2), 401–413. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Joshi, A. K. (1985). Processing of sentences with intrasentential code switching. In D. R. Dowty, L. Karttunen, & A. M. Zwicky (Eds.), Natural language parsing: Psychological, computational, and theoretical perspectives. (pp. 190–205). Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jylkkä, J., Lehtonen, M., Lindholm, F., Kuusakoski, A., & Laine, M. (2018). The relationship between general executive functions and bilingual switching and monitoring in language production. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition,
21
(3), 505–522. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Katz, J., & Selkirk, E. (2011). Contrastive focus vs. discourse-new: Evidence from phonetic prominence in English. Language,
87
(4), 771–816. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lee, E., Brown-Schmidt, S., & Watson, D. G. (2013). Ways of looking ahead: Hierarchical planning in language production. Cognition,
129
(3), 544–562. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). Speaking: From intention to articulation. MIT Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lipski, J. M. (2017). Language switching constraints: more than syntax? Data from Media Lengua. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition,
20
(4), 722–746. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lipski, J. (2019). Field-testing code-switching constraints: A report on a strategic languages project. Languages,
4
(1), 7. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
MacSwan, J. (1999). A Minimalist Approach to intrasentential code switching. Garland.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
MacSwan, J. (2000). The architecture of the bilingual language faculty: Evidence from intrasentential code switching. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition,
3
(1), 37–54. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
MacSwan, J. (2009). Generative approaches to code-switching. In B. B. Bullock & A. J. Toribio (Eds.), Linguistic code-switching. (pp. 309–335). Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
MacSwan, J., & Colina, S. (2014). Some consequences of language design: Code-switching and the PF interface. In J. MacSwan (Ed.), Grammatical theory and bilingual code-switching. (pp. 185–200). MIT Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Marslen-Wilson, W. D. (1985). Speech shadowing and speech comprehension. Speech Communication,
4
(1–3), 55–73. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Montrul, S. (2012). DELE Proficiency Test. National Heritage Language Resource Center [URL]
Myers-Scotton, C. M. (1993). Dueling languages: Grammatical structure in code-switching. Clarendon.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Myers-Scotton, C. M. (1997). Dueling languages: Grammatical structure in code-switching (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Myers-Scotton, C. M., & Jake, J. L. (2000). Testing the 4-M model: An introduction. International Journal of Bilingualism,
4
(1), 1–8. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Myers-Scotton, C. M., & Jake, J. L. (2001). Explaining aspects of code-switching and their implications. In J. L. Nicol (Ed.), One mind, two languages: Bilingual language processing. (pp. 84–116). Blackwell.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Myers-Scotton, C. M., & Jake, J. L. (2017). Revisiting the 4-M model: Code-switching and morpheme election at the abstract level. International Journal of Bilingualism,
21
(3), 340–366. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Olson, D. J. (2017). Bilingual language switching costs in auditory comprehension. Language, Cognition, and Neuroscience,
32
(4), 494–513. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Otheguy, R., & Zentella, A. C. (2012). Spanish in New York: Language contact, dialectal leveling, and structural continuity. Oxford University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Parafita Couto, M. C., & Gullberg, M. (2019). Code-switching within the noun phrase: Evidence from three corpora. The International Journal of Bilingualism,
23
(2), 695–714. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Parafita Couto, M. C., & Stadthagen-Gonzalez, H. (2019). El book or the libro? Insights from acceptability judgments into determiner/noun code-switches. International Journal of Bilingualism,
23
(1), 349–360. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pérez-Leroux, A. T., O’Rourke, E., & Sunderman, G. (2014). Language dominance and code-switching asymmetries. In J. MacSwan (Ed.), Grammatical theory and bilingual code-switching. MIT Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Prince, E., & Pintzuk, S. (2000). Bilingual code-switching and the open/closed class distinction. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics (PWPL), 6(3) [1983], 237–257.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Quesada, M. L., & Blackwell, S. E. (2009). The L2 acquisition of null and overt Spanish subject pronouns: A pragmatic approach. In J. Collentine, M. Garcia, B. Lafford, & F. M. Martín (Eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 11th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium. (pp. 117–130). Cascadilla Proceedings Project.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
R Core Team (2020). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL: [URL]
Ramírez Urbaneja, D. (2020). “¿Tú tienes una little pumpkin?” Mixed noun phrases in Spanish-English bilingual children and adults. The International Journal of Bilingualism,
24
(4), 824–839. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Sankoff, D., & Poplack, S. (1981). A formal grammar for code-switching. Papers in Linguistics,
14
1, 3–45. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Tomić, A., & Valdés Kroff, J. (2022). Expecting the unexpected: Code-switching as a facilitatory cue in online sentence processing. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition,
25
(1), 81–92. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Valdés Kroff, J. R., Dussias, P. E., Gerfen, C., Perrotti, L., & Bajo, M. T. (2017). Experience with code-switching modulates the use of grammatical gender during sentence processing. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism,
7
(2), 163–198. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Valdés Kroff, J. R., Guzzardo Tamargo, R. E., & Dussias, P. E. (2018). Experimental contributions of eye-tracking to the understanding of comprehension processes while hearing and reading code-switches. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism,
98
1, 66–101.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Vanden Wyngaerd, E. (2017). The adjective in Dutch-French codeswitching: Word order and agreement. The International Journal of Bilingualism,
21
(4), 454–473. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Van Gelderen, E., & MacSwan, J. (2008). Interface conditions and code-switching: Pronouns, lexical DPs, and checking theory. Lingua,
118
1, 765–776. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Vinther, T. (2002). Elicited imitation: A brief overview. International Journal of Applied Linguistics,
12
1, 54–73. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Zhao, L., Alario, F., & Yang, Y. (2015). Grammatical planning scope in sentence production: Further evidence for the functional phrase hypothesis. Applied Psycholinguistics,
36
(5), 1059–1075. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)