Ethnolinguistic survey of westernmost Arunachal Pradesh
A fieldworker’s impressions
The area between Bhutan in the west, Tibet in the north, the Kameng river in the east and Assam in the south is home to at least six distinct phyla of the Trans-Himalayan (Tibeto-Burman, Sino-Tibetan) language family. These phyla encompass a minimum of 11, but probably 15 or even more mutually unintelligible languages, all showing considerable internal dialect variation. Previous literature provided largely incomplete or incorrect accounts of these phyla. Based on recent field research, this article discusses in detail the several languages of four phyla whose speakers are included in the Monpa Scheduled Tribe, providing the most accurate speaker data, geographical distribution, internal variation and degree of endangerment. The article also provides some insights into the historical background of the area and the impact this has had on the distribution of the ethnolinguistic groups.
References (90)
Abraham, Binny, Kara Sako, Elina Kinny & Isapdaile Zeliang. 2005. A sociolinguistic research among selected groups in Western Arunachal Pradesh highlighting Monpa. Unpublished report.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Anderson, James Drummond. 1896. A short vocabulary of the Aka language. Shillong.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Anderson, Gregory D.S. & Ganesh Murmu. 2012. Preliminary notes on Koro, a ‘hidden’ language of Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Linguistics 711: 1–32.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Andvik, Erik Emerson. 1999. Tshangla grammar. A dissertation. Oregon: University of Oregon.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Andvik, Erik Emerson. 2009. A grammar of Tshangla. Brill’s Tibetan Studies library. Languages of the greater Himalayan region. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Aris, Michael V. 1980. Notes on the history of the Mon-Yul corridor. In Michael V. Aris & Aung San Suu Kyi (eds.) Tibetan Studies in Honour of Hugh Edward Richardson; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Tibetan Studies, Oxford 1979: 9-20. Warminster.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Aris, Michael V. 1986. Sources for the history of Bhutan. Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde 14. Wien: Arbeitskreis für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien Universität Wien.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Balodis, Uldis. 2009. The numeral system of Dzala, a language of Eastern Bhutan. Presented at the 15th Himalayan Languages Symposium, Eugene, July 30 – August 1, 2009.
Benedict, Paul King. 1972. Sino-Tibetan: a conspectus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Biswal, Ashok. 2006. Mystic Monpas of the Tawang Himalaya. New Delhi: Indus Publishing Company.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Blench, Roger. 2011. Languages of the Mey (Sherdukpen) cluster. Unpublished report.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Blench, Roger & Mark W. Post. 2011. (De)classifying Eastern Himalayan languages: reconsidering the evidence. Unpublished draft of 01 November 2011.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Blench, Roger and Mark W. Post. 2014. Rethinking Sino-Tibetan phylogeny from the perspective of North East Indian languages. In Thomas Owen-Smith and Nathan W. Hill (eds.). Trans-Himalayan Linguistics, 71–104. Berlin: de Gruyter.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bodt, Timotheus Adrianus. 2012. The New Lamp Clarifying the History, Peoples, Languages and Traditions of Eastern Bhutan and Eastern Mon. Wageningen: Monpasang Publications.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bodt, Tim. 2014. Tshangla Phonology and a Standard Tshangla Orthography. In Thomas Owen-Smith and Nathan W. Hill (Eds.). Trans-Himalayan Linguistics, 393–436. Berlin: de Gruyter.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bodt, Timotheus Adrianus. (to appear). Selected ethnographic notes on the settlement of the Gongri valley of western Arunachal Pradesh. Gangtok: Namgyal Institute of Tibetology.
Bradley, David. 1997. Tibeto-Burman languages and classification. In David Bradley (ed.), Papers in South East Asian linguistics: Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas,l–71. Pacific Linguistics A-86. Canberra: Australian National University.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bradley, David. 2002. The subgrouping of Tibeto-Burman. In Christopher I. Beckwith and Henk Blezer (eds.) Medieval Tibeto-Burman languages, 73–112. Leiden: Brill.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Census of India. 2001. West Kameng district household-level census data [excerpt from census results]. Shillong: Census of India Regional Office.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Census of India. 2013. Annexure IB. List of notified Scheduled Tribes. Accessed on 09/06/2013 at [URL].
Chakravarty, L.N. 1953. Dictionary of sentences. Monpa. Dirang area. Shillong: North East Frontier Agency.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chowdhury, J.N. 1975. Evidence of caste-like features in some Arunachal tribes. RESARUN 1(1): 43–55.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Das Gupta, K. 1968. An introduction to Central Monpa. Shillong.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Department of Karmik and Adhyatmik Affairs. 2011. Bho Tri’i skad yig slob deb. ’dzin grwa bdun pa (Bhoti language book. Class seven). Itanagar: Department of Karmik and Adhyatmik Affairs, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Deuri, Ram Kumar. 1976. A note on some popular Sherdukpen traditions about their conversion from animism to Buddhism. RESARUN: 24–27.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Directorate of Research. N.d. Taklung Dzong. Itanagar: Archaeological Section, Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.
Dollfus, Pascale and François Jacquesson. 2013. Khiksaba: A festival in Sherdukpen country. Guwahati/Delhi: Spectrum.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dondrup, Rinchin. 1988. A handbook on Sherdukpen language. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dondrup, Rinchin. 1990. Bugun language guide. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dondrup, Rinchin. 1993. Brokke language guide. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dondrup, Rinchin. 2004. An introduction to Boot Monpa language. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dorji, D. 2003. Shar phyogs bkra’ shis sgang rdzong gi lo gryus (History of the dzong of Trashigang). In Fortress of the dragon: Proceedings of the fourth colloquium on the significance of dzongs held at Thimphu, February 25-27 2003: 172–235. Paro: The National Museum of Bhutan.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Driem, George van. 2001. Languages of the Himalayas, Volume 1-21. Leiden: Brill. ![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Driem, George van. 2007. Dakpa and Dzala form a related subgroup within East Bodish, and some related thoughts. In Linguistics of the Himalayas and beyond, 71–84. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Driem, George van. 2008. Endangered Languages of South Asia. In Matthias Brenzinger (ed.) Language Diversity Endangered, 303–341. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Driem, George van. 2011. The Trans-Himalayan phylum and its implications for population prehistory. Communication on Contemporary Anthropology, 2011, 5, 135–142.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Driem, George van. 2014. Trans-Himalayan. In Thomas Owen-Smith and Nathan W. Hill (Eds.). Trans-Himalayan Linguistics, 11–40. Berlin: de Gruyter.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Duarah, D.K. 1992. The Monpas of Arunachal Pradesh. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dutta S. & B.N. Jha. 1999. British colonial design behind the Udalguri and Doimara fairs and impact over Monpas and Sherdukpens of Arunachal Pradesh. RESARUN 25 (1&2): 7–17.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Egli-Roduner, Susana. 1987. Handbook of the Sharchhokpa-lo/Tsangla (language of the people of Eastern Bhutan). Thimphu: Helvetas.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Genetti, Carol. 2009. An introduction to Dzala, an East Bodish language of Bhutan. Paper presented at the 15th Himalayan Languages Symposium. Eugene, July 30 – August 1, 2009.
Grewal, G.S. 1997. Tribes of Arunachal Pradesh. 2 volumes1. Delhi: South Asia Publications.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gohain, Swargajyoti. 2012. Mobilising language; imagining region: use of Bhoti in West Arunachal Pradesh. Contributions to Indian Sociology 46(3): 337–363. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Government of Arunachal Pradesh. 1996. Gazetteer of India: Arunachal Pradesh: East Kameng, West Kameng and Tawang districts (ed. S. Dutta Choudhury). Shillong:Government of Arunachal Pradesh: Gazetteers Department.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gyelse Tulku. 2009. rta wang dgon pa’i lo rgyus mon yul gsal ba’i me long (The clear mirror of Monyul: A history of Tawang monastery). Dharamsala: Amnye Machen Institute.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gyelrik. 1668. gangs can bod du rje rgyal gnya’ khri btsan srong btsan sgam po khri srong lde’u btsan dang lho phyogs mon du lha sras gtsang ma zhes rnam par sprul pa’i skye mchog de rnams kyi gong ma rje’i gdung rabs ’byung khungs dang ’og ma ’bangs kyi mi rabs chad tshul sogs ngas par gsal ba’i sgron me zhes bya ba bzhugs so (The clear mirror illuminating the history and lineage of the Tibetan kings Nyathritsen, Songtsen Gampo and Thrisong De’utsen, and of prince Tsangma and the subject people in Southern Mon.). Manuscript in ’Ucen from Seru, Tawang, 50ff.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hofrenning, Ralph W. 1959. First Bhutanese grammar: Grammar of Gongar[=Tsangla], language of East Bhutan. WI: Madison.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hoshi, Michiyo. 1987. A Sharchok vocabulary; A language spoken in Eastern Bhutan. Integral study on the ecology, languages and cultures of Tibet and Himalayas No. 8. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa; Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hyslop, Gwendolyn and Karma Tshering. 2010. Preliminary notes on Dakpa (Tawang Monpa). In Mark W. Post and Stephen Morey (eds.), North East Indian Linguistics 21: 3–21. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jatso, Urgen. n.d. The history of the Shertukpen Monpas. New Delhi: Nobel Publishers.
Kennedy, R.S. 1914. Ethnological Report on the Akas, Khowas, and Mijis and the Mombas of Tawang. Shillong.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Klaproth, Julius Heinrich von. 1823. Asia Polyglotta. Paris: A. Schubart.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Konow, Sten. 1902. Note on the languages spoken between the Assam Valley and Tibet. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 127–37.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Konow, Sten. 1909. North Assam group. In G.A. Grierson (ed.). Linguistic survey of India, vol. III1, 568–72. Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lewis, M.P. 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World 16th edition. Arlington, Texas: SIL Publications.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lu, Shaozun. 1986. Cuona Ménbāyu jianzhi (A brief description of Cuona Monba). Beijing: Mínzú.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lu, Shaozun. 2002. Ménbāyu fangyan yanjiu (Studies in the dialects of the Monpa language). Beijing: Mínzú Chúbǎnshè.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Matisoff, James A. 1986. The languages and dialects of Tibeto-Burman: an alphabetic/genetic listing with some prefatory remarks on ethnonymic and glossonymic complications. In John McCoy and Timothy Light (eds.) Contributions to Sino-Tibetan Studies,1–TS. Leiden: E. J. Brill.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Matisoff, James A. Stephen P. Baron and John B. Lowe. 1996. Languages and dialects of Tibeto-Burman. STEDT Monograph Series #2. Berkeley: Center for Southeast Asia Studies, University of California.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Matisoff, James A. 2003. Handbook of Proto-Tibeto-Burman: system and philosophy of Sino-Tibetan reconstruction. Berkeley, Los Angeles, & London: University of California Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Mackenzie, Alexander. 2012[1884]. History of the relations of the government with the hill tribes of the North-East frontier of Bengal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 620 pp. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Norbu, Choeten. 2004. ’khar gdung rgyal po’i lo rgyus rgyas rabs yid dbang ’phel ba’i skyed tshal bzhugs so (The garden of mind stretching historical accounts of Khardung Gyalpo). Thimphu: The Centre for Bhutan Studies.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Norbu, Tshewang. 2008. The Monpas of Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh. Itanagar: Department of Cultural Affairs, Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Office of the DC. 2012. District Statistical Handbook of Tawang district 2010-2011. Tawang: Economics and Statistics Branch, Office of the Deputy Commissioner.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pandey D. & C.M. Nayak. 2007. History of North East India. Pasighat: Bani Mandir Publications.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pelgen, Ugyen. 2007. Rituals and pilgrimage devoted to Aum Jo Mo Re Ma Ti by the ‘Brog pas of Me Rag of Eastern Bhutan. In: John A. Ardussi and Françoise Pommaret (eds.) Bhutan: Traditions and change: 121–133. Leiden: Brill.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Post, Mark W. & Roger Blench. 2011. Siangic: A new language phylum in North East India. Paper presented at the 6th International Conference of the North East Indian Linguistics Society, Tezpur, January 31 - February 2 2011.
Reid, Robert N. 1942. History of the frontier areas bordering on Assam from 1883–1941. Shillong: Assam Government Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Richardson, Hugh Edward. 1945. Tibetan précis. Calcutta: Government of India Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Robinson, William. 1849a. Notes on the languages spoken by various tribes inhabiting the valley of Assam and its mountain confines. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. CCI(March 1849): 183–237.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Robinson, William. 1849b. Notes on the languages spoken by various tribes inhabiting the valley of Assam and its mountain confines. Part II. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. CCI (April 1849): 310–349.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Sarkar, Niranjan. 1980. Buddhism among the Monpas and Sherdukpens. Shillong: Government of Arunachal Pradesh.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Schubert, Johannes. 1964. Hrusso-Vokabular. Mittelungen des lnstituts für Orientforschung 101: 295–350. Berlin: Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shafer, Robert. 1947. Hruso. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies l2.11: 184–196. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shafer, Robert. 1954. The linguistic position of Dwags. Oriens 71: 348–356. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shafer, Robert 1955. Classification of the Sino-Tibetan languages. Word 11(1), 94–111. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shafer, Robert 1966. Introduction to Sino-Tibetan Part I. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shafer, Robert 1967. Introduction to Sino-Tibetan Part II. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Sharma, R.R.P. 1988[1960]. The Sherdukpens. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Simon, I.M. 1993[1970]. Aka language guide. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Simon, I.M. 1979. Miji language guide. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Stack, Edward. 1897. Some Tsangla-Bhutanese sentences: Part III. Shillong: Assam Secretariat Printing Office.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Stonor, C.R. 1948. On the use of tree-fern pith for sago in the Assam Himalayas. Man 481: 137. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Sūn, Hóngkāi, Lù Shàozūn, Zhāng Jìchuān and Ōuyáng Juéyà. 1980. Ménbā, Luoba, Deng ren de yuyin (The languages of the Menba, Luoba and Deng People). Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshi.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Sun, Tianshin Jackson. 1993. A Historical-comparative study of the Tani (Mirish) Branch in Tibeto-Burman. Doctoral Dissertation. Berkeley: University of California.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Thurgood, Graham & Randy J. LaPolla (eds.) 2003. The Sino-Tibetan languages. Routledge Language Family Series. London and New York: Routledge.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
UNESCO Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages. 2003. Language vitality and endangerment. Document submitted to the International Expert Meeting on UNESCO Programme Safeguarding of Endangered Languages, Paris, 10–12 March 2003. Accessed on 30th October 2013 from [URL]
Wangchu, Lhama. 2002. An introduction to Tawang Monpa language. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Zhāng Jichuan. 1986. Cangluo Ménbāyu jianzhi (A brief description of the Tsangla Monba language). Beijing: Mínzú Chūbănshè.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Zhāng Jichuan. 1997. Ménbāzu (The Menba minority). Beijing: Mínzú Chūbănshè.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Cited by (3)
Cited by three other publications
Bodt, Timotheus A. & Johann-Mattis List
Wu, Mei-Shin, Timotheus A. Bodt & Tiago Tresoldi
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 8 july 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.