In this pilot study we set out to compare formulaic sequences of the type of 3-grams in ENL (spoken British English), EFL (English spoken by advanced German learners of English) and ESL (spoken Indian English). The study shows that, for the overall number of types and tokens, there are no significant differences between ENL and ESL, but there are significantly fewer 3-grams in EFL vs. ENL. A comparison of the common core (i.e. the 3-grams all three variants have in common) reveals that these common-core 3-grams are significantly more frequently used in ESL and EFL-variants compared to ENL. A functional analysis shows differences in the distribution of the 3-grams across the variants. A study of the variant-specific 3-grams reveals less variability in EFL vs. ENL but a higher number and variability of both types and tokens in ESL.
2021. Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in the argumentative writing of ESL and EFL learners. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 59:2 ► pp. 209 ff.
Brunner, Marie-Louise, Stefan Diemer & Selina Schmidt
2023. Second and foreign language learners: The effect of language exposure on the use of English phrasal verbs. International Journal of Bilingualism► pp. 136700692311691 ff.
Grami, G.M.A. & B.Y. Alkazemi
2016. Improving ESL writing using an online formulaic sequence word‐combination checker. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 32:2 ► pp. 95 ff.
Gries, Stefan Th. & Sandra C. Deshors
2015. EFL and/vs. ESL?. International Journal of Learner Corpus Research 1:1 ► pp. 130 ff.
Huang, Lan-fen
2019. A Corpus-Based Exploration of the Discourse MarkerWellin Spoken Interlanguage. Language and Speech 62:3 ► pp. 570 ff.
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