This chapter describes a theoretical framework for the design and evaluation of pedagogical tasks for 3D virtual world environments. The proposed framework is informed by Vygotskian Sociocultural Theory (SCT) and Activity Theory, two related sociocultural approaches to second (L2) language learning which, I argue, offer a particularly suitable paradigm for the design, implementation, and evaluation of technology-mediated tasks. Firstly, I provide an overview of what characterises 3D virtual worlds (3D VWs) and of current research into the potential of this technological application in the service of second language learning and teaching, and the range of tasks that this research has thus far inspected. Secondly, I briefly review core SCT concepts underlying the proposed framework and point out how they apply to 3D VW tasks. I then identify pedagogical principles derived from this approach to L2 learning and discuss their relevance in the context of technology-mediated task-based language teaching (TBLT) with specific reference to the current state and capabilities of 3D VWs. I also outline a task example designed to capitalise on the potential of 3D VWs for L2 learning. I conclude with a proposal for the application of Activity Theory to the evaluation of 3D VWs tasks. At a theoretical level, my goal in the chapter is to bring key sociocultural perspectives to TBLT and show how SCT can inform theoretically sound pedagogical design in TBLT. At a practical level, I hope to offer a framework for practitioners to support the design and evaluation of technology-mediated tasks in general and 3D VWs tasks in particular.
Aljaafreh, A., & Lantolf, J. P. (1994). Negative feedback as regulation and second language
learning in the zone of proximal development. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 465–483.
Brooks, L., Swain, M., Lapkin, S., & Knouzi, I. (2010). Mediating between scientific and spontaneous concepts
through languaging. Language Awareness, 19, 89–110.
Bygate, M., Skehan, P., & Swain, M. (Eds.). (2001). Researching pedagogic tasks: Second language learning,
teaching and testing. London: Longman.
Byrnes, H. (2006). What kind of resource is language and why does it matter for advanced language learning? An introduction. In
H.
Byrnes (Ed.), Advanced language learning: The contribution of Halliday and Vygotsky (pp. 1–28). London, UK: Continuum.
Cobb, S. C. (2009). Social presence and online learning: A current view
from a research perspective. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 8, 241–254.
Coughlan, P., & Duff, P. A. (1994). Same task, different activities: Analysis of SLA
tasks from an Activity Theory perspective. In
P.
Lantolf & G.
Appel (Eds.), Vygotskian approaches to second language research (pp. 173–194). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Daniels, H. (2007). Pedagogy. In
H.
Daniels, M.
Cole, & J. V. Wertsch (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to Vygotsky (pp. 307–331). Cambridge, UK: CUP.
Davies, G. (2009). Preface. In
J. Molka-Danielsen & M.
Deutschmann (Eds.), Learning and teaching in the virtual world of Second Life (pp. 3–6). Trondheim, Norway: Tapir Academic Press.
de Guerrero, M.C. M. (2005). Inner speech – L2: Thinking words in a second
language. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Deutschmann, M., & Panichi, L. (2009). Instructional design, teacher practice and learner
autonomy. In
J. Molka-Danielsen & M.
Deutschmann (Eds.), Learning and teaching in the virtual world of Second Life (pp. 27–43). Trondheim, Norway: Tapir Academic Press.
Deutschmann, M., Panichi, L., & Molka-Danielsen, J. (2009). Designing oral participation in Second Life: A
comparative study of two language proficiency courses. ReCALL, 21, 206–226.
del Río, P., & Álvarez, A. (2007). Inside and outside the Zone of Proximal Development:
An ecofunctional reading of Vygotsky. In
H.
Daniels, M.
Cole, & J. V. Wertsch (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to Vygotsky (pp. 276–303). Cambridge, UK: CUP.
Donato, R. (2000). Sociocultural contributions to understanding the
foreign and second language classroom. In
J.
Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural Theory and second language learning (pp. 27–50). Oxford, UK: OUP.
Engeström, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity theoretical approach to
developmental research. Helsinki, Finland: Orienta-Konsultit.
Engeström, Y. (2001). Expansive learning at work: toward an activity
theoretical reconceptualization. Journal of Education and Work, 14, 133–156.
Gánem-Gutiérrez, G. A. (2008). Microgenesis, method and object: A study of
collaborative activity in a Spanish as a foreign language classroom. Applied Linguistics, 29, 120–148.
Gánem-Gutiérrez, G. A. (2009). Repetition, use of L1, and reading aloud as
mediational mechanisms during collaborative activity at the
computer. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 22, 323–348.
Gánem-Gutiérrez, G. A., & Harun, H. (2011). Verbalization as a mediational tool for understanding
tense/aspect marking in English: An application of Concept-Based
Instruction. Language Awareness, 20, 99–119.
Gardner, M., Gánem-Gutiérrez, G. A., Scott, J., Horan, B., & Callaghan, V. (2011). Immersive education spaces using Open Wonderland:
From pedagogy through to practice. In
G.
Vincenti & J.
Braman (Eds.), Multi-user virtual environments for the classroom:
Practical approaches to teaching in virtual worlds (pp. 190–205). Hershey, NJ: IGI.
Gardner, M., Gánem-Gutiérrez, A., & Scott, J. (2010). SIMiLLE Good practice guide. Project funded by a JISC Learning and Teaching Innovations
Grant. University of Essex, UK.
Gass, S. M., & Selinker, L. (2008). Second language acquisition: An introductory course (
3
rd
ed.
). New York, NY: Routledge.
Ho, C.M. L. (2010). What’s in a question? The case of
students’ enactments in the Second Life virtual world. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 4, 151–176.
Ho, C.M. L., Rappa, N. A., & Chee, Y. S. (2009). Designing and implementing virtual enactive role-play
and structured argumentation: Promises and pitfalls. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 22, 381–408.
Jauregi, K., & de Graaff, R. (2009). Communicative tasks for language students and teacher
trainees in video web communication and virtual worlds. In
N.
Brouwer, B.
Giesbers, B.
Rienties & L. van
Gastel (Eds.), Proceedings of student mobility and ICT: Dimensions of
transition (pp. 191–200). Maastricht: FEVA ERD Press.
Jauregi, K., Canto, S., de Graaff, R., Koenraad, T., & Moonen, M. (2011). Verbal interaction in Second Life: Towards a
pedagogic framework for task design. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24, 77–101.
Knouzi, I., Swain, M., Lapkin, S., & Brooks, L. (2010). Self-scaffolding mediated by languaging: Microgenetic
analysis of high and low performers. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 20, 23–49.
Koenraad, A.L. M. (2007). 3D and language education. [White paper] on the rationale for the ViTAAL project. Retrieved from <[URL]>
Kuutti, K. (1996). Activity theory as a potential framework for
human-computer interaction research. In
B.
Nardi (Ed.), Context and consciousness: Activity theory and human
computer interaction (pp.
17–44). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Lafford, B. (2009). Toward an ecological CALL: Update to Garrett (1991). Modern Language Journal, 93, 673–696.
Lantolf, J. P. (2008). Praxis and classroom L2 development. Estudios de Lingüística Inglesa Aplicada, 8, 13–44.
Lantolf, J. P. (2004). Sociocultural theory and second and foreign language
learning: An overview of sociocultural theory. In
K. van
Esch & O.
St. John (Eds.), New insights into foreign language and teaching (pp. 13–34). Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Lantolf, J. P., & Johnson, K. E. (2007). Extending Firth and Wagner’s (1997)
ontological perspective to L2 classroom praxis and teacher
education. The Modern Language Journal, 91, 877–892.
Lantolf, J. P., & Pavlenko, A. (2001). (S)econd (L)anguage (A)ctivity: Understanding second
language learners as people. In
M.
Breen (Ed.), Learner contributions to language learning: New directions
in research (pp. 141–158). London, UK: Longman.
Lantolf, J. P., & Poehner, M. E. (2004). Dynamic assessment: Bringing the past into the future. Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1, 49–74.
Lantolf, J. P., & Thorne, S. L. (2007). Sociocultural theory and second language acquisition. In
B. van
Patten & J.
Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition (pp. 201–224). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lantolf, J. P., & Thorne, S. L (2006). Sociocultural theory and the genesis of second language
development. Oxford, UK: OUP.
Lapkin, S. M., Swain, M., & Knouzi
I. (2008). Postsecondary French as a second language students
learn the grammatical concept of voice: study design, materials
development, and pilot data. In
J. P. Lantolf & M.
Poehner (Eds.), Sociocultural theory and the teaching of second languages (pp. 228–255). London, UK: Equinox.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2003). Teaching language: From grammar to grammaring. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Lavelli, M., Pantoja, A.P. F., Hsu, H., Messinger, D., & Fogel, A. (2005). Using microgenetic designs to study change processes. In
D. M. Teti (Ed.), Handbook of research methods in developmental science (pp. 40–65). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Mitchell, R., & Myles, F. (2004). Second language learning theories (
2
nd
ed.
). London, UK: Arnold.
Müller-Hartmann, A., & Schocker-von Ditfurth, M. (2010). Research on the use of technology in Task-Based
Language Teaching. In
M.
Thomas & H.
Reinders (Eds.), Task-based language learning and teaching with technology (pp. 17–40). London, UK: Continuum.
Negueruela, E. (2008). Revolutionary pedagogies: Learning that leads (to)
second language development. In
J. P. Lantolf & M. E. Poehner (Eds.), Sociocultural theory and the teaching of second languages (pp. 189–227). London, UK: Equinox.
Negueruela, E., & Lantolf, J. (2006). Concept-based pedagogy and the acquisition of L2
Spanish. In
R.
Salaberry & R.
Lafford (Eds.), Spanish second language acquisition: From research to
application (pp. 79–102). Washington DC: Georgetown University Press.
Norris, J. M. (2009). Task-based teaching and testing. In
M. H. Long & C. J. Doughty (Eds.), Handbook of language teaching (pp. 578–594). Malden, MA: Wiley/Blackwell.
Ohta, A. S. (2001). Second language acquisition processes in the classroom:
Learning Japanese. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Peterson, M. (2006). Learner interaction management in an avatar and
chat-based virtual world. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 19, 79–103.
Peterson, M. (2010). Learner participation patterns and strategy use in
Second Life: an exploratory case study. ReCALL, 22, 273–292.
Peterson, M. (2011). Towards a research agenda for the use of
three-dimensional virtual worlds in language learning. CALICO Journal, 29, 1–15.
Peterson, M. (2012). EFL learner collaborative interaction in Second Life. ReCALL, 24, 20–39.
Poehner, M. E., & Lantolf, J. P. (2005). Dynamic assessment in the language classroom. Language Teaching Research, 9, 1–33.
Reinders, H., & White
C. (2010). The theory and practice of technology in materials
development and task design. In
N.
Harwood (Ed.), Materials in ELT: Theory and Practice (pp. 58–80). Cambridge, UK: CUP.
Robbins, D. (2001). Vygotsky's psychology-philosophy: A metaphor for language
theory and learning. New York,NY: Kluwer.
Rymaszewski, M., Wagner, J., Ondrejka, C., Platel, R., Van Gorden, S., Cézanne, J., Cézanne, P., Batstone-Cunningham, B., Krotoski, A., Trollop, C., & Rossignol, J. (2008). Second Life: The official guide. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley.
Samuda, V., & Bygate, M. (2008). Tasks in second language learning. Houndmillls, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Saville-Troike, M. (2006). Introducing second language acquisition. Cambridge, UK: CUP.
Schwienhorst, K. (2008). Learner autonomy and CALL environments. New York, NY: Routledge.
Short, J., Williams, E., & Christie, B. (1976). The social psychology of telecommunications. London, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Swain, M. (2006). Languaging, agency and collaboration in advanced
second language proficiency. In
H.
Byrnes(Ed.), Advanced language learning: The contribution of Halliday
and Vygotsky (pp. 95–108). London, UK: Continuum.
Swain, M. (2000). The output hypothesis and beyond: Mediating
acquisition through collaborative dialogue. In
J. P. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning (pp. 97–114). Oxford, UK: OUP.
Swain, M., Lapkin, S., Knouzi, I., Suzuki, W., & Brooks, L. (2009). Languaging: University students learn the grammatical
concept of voice in French. Modern Language Journal, 93, 6–30.
Sykes, J. M., Oskoz, A., & Thorne, S. L. (2008). Web 2.0, synthetic immersive environments, and mobile
resources for language education. CALICO Journal, 25, 528–546.
Tharp, R., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning, and schooling in
social context. Cambridge, UK: CUP.
Thorne, S. L. (2004). Cultural historical activity theory and the object of
innovation. In
K. van
Esch & O.
St. John (Eds.), New insights into foreign language and teaching (pp. 51–70). Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Thorne, S. L. (2000). Second language acquisition theory and the truth (s)
about relativity. In
J.
Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning (pp. 219–244). Oxford, UK: OUP.
Van den Branden, K., Bygate, M., & Norris, J. M. (Eds.). (2009). Task-based language teaching: A reader. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
van Lier, L. (2008). Agency in the classroom. In
J. P. Lantolf & M. E. Poehner (Eds.), Sociocultural theory and the teaching of second languages (pp. 163–188). London, UK: Equinox.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1997a). The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky: Vol. 1. Problems of
general psychology. Including the volume thinking and speech. R. W. Reiber & A. S. Carton ( Eds.). New York, NY: Plenum.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1997b). The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky: Vol. 4. The History
of the Development of Higher Mental Functions. R. W. Reiber & A. S. Carton (Eds.). New York, NY: Plenum.
Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the Social Formation of Mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Zheng, D., Wagner, M., Young, M. F., & Brewer, R. A. (2009a). Negotiation for action: English language learning in
game-based virtual worlds. The Modern Language Journal, 93, 489–511.
Zheng, D., Young, M. F., Brewer, R. A., & Wagner, M. (2009b). Attitude and self-efficacy change: English language
learning in virtual worlds. CALICO Journal, 27, 205–231.
Cited by (33)
Cited by 33 other publications
Li, Jiantao, Qingjia Kou & Mohammad Mosiur Rahman
2023. Designing Tasks through Second Life for CFL Learners in the UK University. Education Research International 2023 ► pp. 1 ff.
2021. Framework for 3D Task Design. In Implementing Augmented Reality Into Immersive Virtual Learning Environments [Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design, ], ► pp. 34 ff.
Kozlova, Iryna
2022. Framework for 3D Task Design. In Research Anthology on Virtual Environments and Building the Metaverse, ► pp. 570 ff.
2019. The Use of Network-Based Virtual Worlds in Second Language Education. In Assessing the Effectiveness of Virtual Technologies in Foreign and Second Language Instruction [Advances in Linguistics and Communication Studies, ], ► pp. 1 ff.
Peterson, Mark, Qiao Wang & Maryam Sadat Mirzaei
2022. The Use of Network-Based Virtual Worlds in Second Language Education. In Research Anthology on Virtual Environments and Building the Metaverse, ► pp. 218 ff.
Vivakaran, Mangale Vadivu & Neelamalar Maraimalai
2018. The Feasibility and Acceptance of Social Media Interventions in Higher Education Classrooms of Developing Nations with Special Reference to India. Contemporary Educational Technology 9:3 ► pp. 284 ff.
Canto, Silvia & Kristi Jauregi Ondarra
2017. Language learning effects through the integration of synchronous online communication: The case of video communication and Second Life. Language Learning in Higher Education 7:1 ► pp. 21 ff.
González‐Lloret, Marta
2017. Technology for Task‐based Language Teaching. In The Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning, ► pp. 234 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Comparative Method Studies. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 283 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Task-Based Syllabus Design. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 179 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Psycholinguistic Perspectives. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 64 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Questions, Challenges and the Future. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 353 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Introduction. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 1 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Investigating Task-Based Programmes. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 281 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Pedagogical Perspectives. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 175 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Index. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 412 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Cognitive-Interactionist Perspectives. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 29 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Responding to the Critics of Task-Based Language Teaching. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 333 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Authors’ Preface. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. xiii ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Task-Based Testing and Assessment. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 241 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Educational Perspectives. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 155 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. References. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 374 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Theoretical Perspectives. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 27 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Moving Forward. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 331 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Series Editors’ Preface. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. xi ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Methodology of Task-Based Language Teaching. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 208 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Psychological Perspectives. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 129 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Sociocultural Perspectives. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 103 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Endnotes. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 371 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. The Pedagogic Background to Task-Based Language Teaching. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 3 ff.
[no author supplied]
2019. Evaluating Task-Based Language Teaching. In Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 303 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 30 december 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.