Chapter 2

Toward a cognitive typology of like-expressions

From a typological point of view, expressions of likeness are marked for a seemingly heterogeneous set of corresponding linguistic representations, ranging for instance from locative-based case marking strategies to lexical expressions and constructional patterns. I argue that like-concepts represent stative or processual/dynamic transitive relational units and hence entail strong ‘verbal’ features. This aspect links the question of the conceptual background of like-concepts to the domain of word classes. Accordingly, the semantics of like-expressions is conditioned both by the underlying conceptual source domain and the syntactic role the expression (lexeme or morpheme) takes up in a like-relation. In this sense, the paper distinguishes intraclausal verbal patterns (she equals/is like a queen) from clause combining patterns that relate to event images (she swims like a fish < *she swims like a fish swims). In addition, like-concepts can show up as relational concepts within NPs or as adverbial elements. Such syntactically and in parts pragmatically controlled features have a strong impact on the semantic instantiation of like-concepts that by themselves form a subtype of projection strategies. In fact, like-concepts can be scaled according to the degree to which the domain of the other is mapped onto the identity of the referent. Such a scale may start from the following model: similar to Y> alike/equal to Y > become/changed to Y > temporarily be Y > be Y. Contrary to identification concepts, like-concepts do not signal the inclusion of a referential unit into a specific set or the referential specification of given ‘properties’. Rather, like-concepts are projection strategies that relate a referential unit to properties of another referential unit in a way that ‘disguises’ or ‘masks’ the trajectory unit with the help of properties typical for the landmark unit. This relates them to become-concepts (temporary transfiguration), motion (‘X moves into the region of Y thus acquiring properties of Y’) and imaging/imitation (‘X is the picture of Y’, ‘X mirrors Y’ etc.). In addition, disguising processes can be directly expressed by referring to the domain of gestalt/shape. This model is probably related to cultural practices of temporary transfiguration.

The chapter elaborates these conceptual source domains from the point of view of diachronic lexical typology. Data used to illustrate these domains are mainly taken from Indo-European languages supplemented by data from non-Indo-European, mainly Semitic, languages. Additionally, the findings are evaluated with the help of data stemming from basically two East Caucasian languages, namely Udi and its earlier relative Caucasian Albanian. The results of the second part of the paper elaborate the proposed (diachronic) semantic map of like-concepts that may serve as a preliminary template when searching for features of both Universal Cognitive Semantics and Cultural Linguistics with respect to the typology of like-concepts.